Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Tumor Biology 4/2014

01-04-2014 | Review

A review on the role of l-carnitine in the management of tamoxifen side effects in treated women with breast cancer

Authors: Nahla E. El-Ashmawy, Rania M. Khalil

Published in: Tumor Biology | Issue 4/2014

Login to get access

Abstract

l-carnitine is an antioxidant and is found to be a protective agent against many diseases including cancer. This review illustrates the possible role of l-carnitine as an add-on therapy to breast cancer patients maintained on tamoxifen. The objectives of carnitine treatment are diverse: improving tamoxifen-related side effects, offering better cancer prognosis by reducing the risk of developing cancer recurrence or metastasis, and modulating the growth factors which may be, in part, a prospective illustration to overcome tamoxifen resistance. So, it could be recommended to supplement l-carnitine to breast cancer patients starting tamoxifen treatment.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Ahmad S. l-carnitine in dialysis patients. Semin Dialysis. 2001;14(3):209–17. Ahmad S. l-carnitine in dialysis patients. Semin Dialysis. 2001;14(3):209–17.
2.
go back to reference Aja S, Landree LE, Kleman AM, Medghalchi SM, Vadlamudi A, McFadden JM, et al. Pharmacological stimulation of brain carnitine palmitoyl-transferase-1 decreases food intake and body weight. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;294:R352–61.PubMed Aja S, Landree LE, Kleman AM, Medghalchi SM, Vadlamudi A, McFadden JM, et al. Pharmacological stimulation of brain carnitine palmitoyl-transferase-1 decreases food intake and body weight. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;294:R352–61.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Alagozlu H, Cindoruk M, Unal S. Tamoxifen-induced severe hypertriglyceridaemia and acute pancreatitis. Clin Drug Investig. 2006;26(5):297–302.PubMed Alagozlu H, Cindoruk M, Unal S. Tamoxifen-induced severe hypertriglyceridaemia and acute pancreatitis. Clin Drug Investig. 2006;26(5):297–302.PubMed
4.
go back to reference Al-Majed AA. Carnitine deficiency provokes cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;100(3):145–50.PubMed Al-Majed AA. Carnitine deficiency provokes cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;100(3):145–50.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Al-Rejaie SS, Aleisa AM, Al-Yahya AA, Bakheet SA, Alsheikh A, Fatani AG, et al. Progression of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatic carcinogenesis in carnitine-depleted rats. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15(11):1373–80.PubMedCentralPubMed Al-Rejaie SS, Aleisa AM, Al-Yahya AA, Bakheet SA, Alsheikh A, Fatani AG, et al. Progression of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatic carcinogenesis in carnitine-depleted rats. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15(11):1373–80.PubMedCentralPubMed
6.
go back to reference Andreasen EB, Tranholm M, Wiinberg B, Markussen B, Kristensen AT. Haemostatic alterations in a group of canine cancer patients are associated with cancer type and disease progression. Acta Vet Scand. 2012;54(1):3–30.PubMedCentralPubMed Andreasen EB, Tranholm M, Wiinberg B, Markussen B, Kristensen AT. Haemostatic alterations in a group of canine cancer patients are associated with cancer type and disease progression. Acta Vet Scand. 2012;54(1):3–30.PubMedCentralPubMed
7.
go back to reference Ariazi EA, Cunliffe HE, Lewis-Wambi JS, Slifker MJ, Willis AL, Ramos P, et al. Estrogen induces apoptosis in estrogen deprivation-resistant breast cancer through stress responses as identified by global gene expression across time. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:18879–86.PubMedCentralPubMed Ariazi EA, Cunliffe HE, Lewis-Wambi JS, Slifker MJ, Willis AL, Ramos P, et al. Estrogen induces apoptosis in estrogen deprivation-resistant breast cancer through stress responses as identified by global gene expression across time. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:18879–86.PubMedCentralPubMed
8.
go back to reference Behr GA, Moreira JC, Frey BN. Preclinical and clinical evidence of antioxidant effects of antidepressant agents: implications for the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2012;2012:609421–34.PubMedCentralPubMed Behr GA, Moreira JC, Frey BN. Preclinical and clinical evidence of antioxidant effects of antidepressant agents: implications for the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2012;2012:609421–34.PubMedCentralPubMed
9.
go back to reference Biolo G, Toigo G, Ciocchi B, Situlin R, Iscra F, Gullo A, et al. Metabolic response to injury and sepsis: changes in protein metabolism. Nutrition. 1997;13:52S–7S.PubMed Biolo G, Toigo G, Ciocchi B, Situlin R, Iscra F, Gullo A, et al. Metabolic response to injury and sepsis: changes in protein metabolism. Nutrition. 1997;13:52S–7S.PubMed
10.
go back to reference Borghi-Silva A, Baldissera V, Sampaio LM, Pires-DiLorenzo VA, Jamami M, Demonte A, et al. l-carnitine as an ergogenic aid for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease submitted to whole-body and respiratory muscle training programs. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2006;39(4):465–74.PubMed Borghi-Silva A, Baldissera V, Sampaio LM, Pires-DiLorenzo VA, Jamami M, Demonte A, et al. l-carnitine as an ergogenic aid for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease submitted to whole-body and respiratory muscle training programs. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2006;39(4):465–74.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Breuer B, Anderson R. The relationship of tamoxifen with dementia, depression, and dependence in activities of daily living in elderly nursing home residents. Women Health. 2000;31(1):71–85.PubMed Breuer B, Anderson R. The relationship of tamoxifen with dementia, depression, and dependence in activities of daily living in elderly nursing home residents. Women Health. 2000;31(1):71–85.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Brocker C, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V. The role of hyperosmotic stress in inflammation and disease. Biomol Concepts. 2012;3(4):345–64.PubMedCentralPubMed Brocker C, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V. The role of hyperosmotic stress in inflammation and disease. Biomol Concepts. 2012;3(4):345–64.PubMedCentralPubMed
13.
go back to reference Browne BC, O'Brien N, Duffy MJ, Crown J, O'Donovan N. HER-2 signalling and inhibition in breast cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Ther. 2009;9:419–38. Browne BC, O'Brien N, Duffy MJ, Crown J, O'Donovan N. HER-2 signalling and inhibition in breast cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Ther. 2009;9:419–38.
14.
go back to reference Campbell CI, Petrik JJ, Moorehead RA. ErbB2 enhances mammary tumorigenesis, oncogene-independent recurrence and metastasis in a model of IGF-IR-mediated mammary tumorigenesis. Mol Cancer. 2010;9:235–50.PubMedCentralPubMed Campbell CI, Petrik JJ, Moorehead RA. ErbB2 enhances mammary tumorigenesis, oncogene-independent recurrence and metastasis in a model of IGF-IR-mediated mammary tumorigenesis. Mol Cancer. 2010;9:235–50.PubMedCentralPubMed
15.
go back to reference Cao Y, Qu HJ, Li P, Wang CB, Wang LX, Han ZW. Single dose administration of l-carnitine improves antioxidant activities in healthy subjects. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2011;224(3):209–13.PubMed Cao Y, Qu HJ, Li P, Wang CB, Wang LX, Han ZW. Single dose administration of l-carnitine improves antioxidant activities in healthy subjects. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2011;224(3):209–13.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Cappuzzo F, Toschi L, Tallini G, Ceresoli GL, Domenichini I, Bartolini S, et al. Insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGFR-1) is significantly associated with longer survival in non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with gefitinib. Ann Oncol. 2006;17:1120–7.PubMed Cappuzzo F, Toschi L, Tallini G, Ceresoli GL, Domenichini I, Bartolini S, et al. Insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGFR-1) is significantly associated with longer survival in non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with gefitinib. Ann Oncol. 2006;17:1120–7.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Cavallini G, Caracciolo S, Vitali G, Modenini F, Biagiotti G. Carnitine versus androgen administration in the treatment of sexual dysfunction, depressed mood, and fatigue associated with male aging. Urology. 2004;63(4):641–6.PubMed Cavallini G, Caracciolo S, Vitali G, Modenini F, Biagiotti G. Carnitine versus androgen administration in the treatment of sexual dysfunction, depressed mood, and fatigue associated with male aging. Urology. 2004;63(4):641–6.PubMed
18.
go back to reference Cave MC, Hurt RT, Frazier TH, Matheson PJ, Garrison RN, McClain CJ, et al. Obesity, inflammation, and the potential application of pharmaconutrition. Nutr Clin Pract. 2008;23:16–34.PubMed Cave MC, Hurt RT, Frazier TH, Matheson PJ, Garrison RN, McClain CJ, et al. Obesity, inflammation, and the potential application of pharmaconutrition. Nutr Clin Pract. 2008;23:16–34.PubMed
19.
go back to reference Chan AL, Leung HW, Wang SF. Multivitamin supplement use and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(4):476–84.PubMed Chan AL, Leung HW, Wang SF. Multivitamin supplement use and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(4):476–84.PubMed
20.
go back to reference Chang B, Nishikawa M, Nishiguchi S, Inoue M. l-carnitine inhibits hepatocarcinogenesis via protection of mitochondria. Int J Cancer. 2005;113:719–29.PubMed Chang B, Nishikawa M, Nishiguchi S, Inoue M. l-carnitine inhibits hepatocarcinogenesis via protection of mitochondria. Int J Cancer. 2005;113:719–29.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Corrales RM, Luo L, Chang EY, Pflugfelder SC. Effects of osmoprotectants on hyperosmolar stress in cultured human corneal epithelial cells. Cornea. 2008;27:574–9.PubMed Corrales RM, Luo L, Chang EY, Pflugfelder SC. Effects of osmoprotectants on hyperosmolar stress in cultured human corneal epithelial cells. Cornea. 2008;27:574–9.PubMed
22.
go back to reference Cruciani RA, Dvorkin E, Homel P, Culliney B, Malamud S, Shaiova L, et al. l-carnitine supplementation for the treatment of fatigue and depressed mood in cancer patients with carnitine deficiency: a preliminary analysis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1033:168–76.PubMed Cruciani RA, Dvorkin E, Homel P, Culliney B, Malamud S, Shaiova L, et al. l-carnitine supplementation for the treatment of fatigue and depressed mood in cancer patients with carnitine deficiency: a preliminary analysis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1033:168–76.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Cui J, Shen Y, Li R. Estrogen synthesis and signaling pathways during aging: from periphery to brain. Trends Mol Med. 2013;19(3):197–209.PubMedCentralPubMed Cui J, Shen Y, Li R. Estrogen synthesis and signaling pathways during aging: from periphery to brain. Trends Mol Med. 2013;19(3):197–209.PubMedCentralPubMed
24.
go back to reference Davies C, Pan H, Godwin J, Gray R, Arriagada R, Raina V, et al. Long-term effects of continuing adjuvant tamoxifen to 10 years versus stopping at 5 years after diagnosis of oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer: ATLAS, a randomised trial. Lancet. 2013;381(9869):805–16.PubMedCentralPubMed Davies C, Pan H, Godwin J, Gray R, Arriagada R, Raina V, et al. Long-term effects of continuing adjuvant tamoxifen to 10 years versus stopping at 5 years after diagnosis of oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer: ATLAS, a randomised trial. Lancet. 2013;381(9869):805–16.PubMedCentralPubMed
25.
go back to reference Davison Z, de Blacquiere GE, Westley BR, May FE. Insulin-like growth factor-dependent proliferation and survival of triple-negative breast cancer cells: implications for therapy. Neoplasia. 2011;13:504–15.PubMedCentralPubMed Davison Z, de Blacquiere GE, Westley BR, May FE. Insulin-like growth factor-dependent proliferation and survival of triple-negative breast cancer cells: implications for therapy. Neoplasia. 2011;13:504–15.PubMedCentralPubMed
26.
go back to reference De Falco FA, D'Angelo E, Grimaldi G, Scafuro F, Sachez F, Caruso G. Effect of the chronic treatment with l-acetylcarnitine in Down's syndrome. Clin Ter. 1994;144(2):123–7.PubMed De Falco FA, D'Angelo E, Grimaldi G, Scafuro F, Sachez F, Caruso G. Effect of the chronic treatment with l-acetylcarnitine in Down's syndrome. Clin Ter. 1994;144(2):123–7.PubMed
27.
go back to reference De Grandis D, Minardi C. Acetyl-l-carnitine (levacecarnine) in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. A long-term, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Drugs R D. 2002;3(4):223–31.PubMed De Grandis D, Minardi C. Acetyl-l-carnitine (levacecarnine) in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. A long-term, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Drugs R D. 2002;3(4):223–31.PubMed
28.
go back to reference De Vivo DC, Bohan TP, Coulter DL, Dreifuss FE, Greenwood RS, Nordli Jr DR, et al. l-carnitine supplementation in childhood epilepsy: current perspectives. Epilepsia. 1998;39(11):1216–25.PubMed De Vivo DC, Bohan TP, Coulter DL, Dreifuss FE, Greenwood RS, Nordli Jr DR, et al. l-carnitine supplementation in childhood epilepsy: current perspectives. Epilepsia. 1998;39(11):1216–25.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Dossus L, Kaaks R. Nutrition, metabolic factors and cancer risk. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;22(4):551–71.PubMed Dossus L, Kaaks R. Nutrition, metabolic factors and cancer risk. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;22(4):551–71.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Duffy LS, Greenberg DB, Younger J, Ferraro MG. Iatrogenic acute estrogen deficiency and psychiatric syndromes in breast cancer patients. Psychosomatics. 1999;40:304–8.PubMed Duffy LS, Greenberg DB, Younger J, Ferraro MG. Iatrogenic acute estrogen deficiency and psychiatric syndromes in breast cancer patients. Psychosomatics. 1999;40:304–8.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Dutta A, Ray K, Singh VK, Vats P, Singh SN, Singh SB. l-carnitine supplementation attenuates intermittent hypoxia-induced oxidative stress and delays muscle fatigue in rats. Exp Physiol. 2008;93(10):1139–46.PubMed Dutta A, Ray K, Singh VK, Vats P, Singh SN, Singh SB. l-carnitine supplementation attenuates intermittent hypoxia-induced oxidative stress and delays muscle fatigue in rats. Exp Physiol. 2008;93(10):1139–46.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Eisner A, Luoh SW. Breast cancer medications and vision: effects of treatments for early-stage disease. Curr Eye Res. 2011;36(10):867–85.PubMedCentralPubMed Eisner A, Luoh SW. Breast cancer medications and vision: effects of treatments for early-stage disease. Curr Eye Res. 2011;36(10):867–85.PubMedCentralPubMed
33.
go back to reference Erbas H, Aydogdu N, Usta U, Erten O. Protective role of carnitine in breast cancer via decreasing arginase activity and increasing nitric oxide. Cell Biol Int. 2007;31:1414–9.PubMed Erbas H, Aydogdu N, Usta U, Erten O. Protective role of carnitine in breast cancer via decreasing arginase activity and increasing nitric oxide. Cell Biol Int. 2007;31:1414–9.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Federighi G, Macchi M, Bernardi R, Scuri R, Brunelli M, Durante M, et al. Differentially expressed genes in Hirudo medicinalis ganglia after acetyl-l-carnitine treatment. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e53605–11.PubMedCentralPubMed Federighi G, Macchi M, Bernardi R, Scuri R, Brunelli M, Durante M, et al. Differentially expressed genes in Hirudo medicinalis ganglia after acetyl-l-carnitine treatment. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e53605–11.PubMedCentralPubMed
35.
go back to reference Feher J, Kovacs B, Kovacs I, Schveoller M, Papale A, Balacco Gabrieli C. Improvement of visual functions and fundus alterations in early age-related macular degeneration treated with a combination of acetyl-l-carnitine, n-3 fatty acids, and coenzyme Q10. Ophthalmologica. 2005;219(3):154–66.PubMed Feher J, Kovacs B, Kovacs I, Schveoller M, Papale A, Balacco Gabrieli C. Improvement of visual functions and fundus alterations in early age-related macular degeneration treated with a combination of acetyl-l-carnitine, n-3 fatty acids, and coenzyme Q10. Ophthalmologica. 2005;219(3):154–66.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Fidler MJ, Shersher DD, Borgia JA, Bonomi P. Targeting the insulin-like growth factor receptor pathway in lung cancer: problems and pitfalls. Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2012;4(2):51–60.PubMedCentralPubMed Fidler MJ, Shersher DD, Borgia JA, Bonomi P. Targeting the insulin-like growth factor receptor pathway in lung cancer: problems and pitfalls. Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2012;4(2):51–60.PubMedCentralPubMed
37.
go back to reference Forloni G, Angeretti N, Smiroldo S. Neuroprotective activity of acetyl-l-carnitine: studies in vitro. J Neurosci Res. 1994;37(1):92–6.PubMed Forloni G, Angeretti N, Smiroldo S. Neuroprotective activity of acetyl-l-carnitine: studies in vitro. J Neurosci Res. 1994;37(1):92–6.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Gallicchio L, Lord G, Tkaczuk K, Danton M, Lewis LM, Lim CK, et al. Association of tamoxifen (TAM) and TAM metabolite concentrations with self-reported side effects of TAM in women with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2004;85(1):89–97.PubMed Gallicchio L, Lord G, Tkaczuk K, Danton M, Lewis LM, Lim CK, et al. Association of tamoxifen (TAM) and TAM metabolite concentrations with self-reported side effects of TAM in women with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2004;85(1):89–97.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Giancaterini A, De Gaetano A, Mingrone G, Gniuli D, Liverani E, Capristo E, et al. Acetyl-l-carnitine infusion increases glucose disposal in type 2 diabetic patients. Metabolism. 2000;49(6):704–8.PubMed Giancaterini A, De Gaetano A, Mingrone G, Gniuli D, Liverani E, Capristo E, et al. Acetyl-l-carnitine infusion increases glucose disposal in type 2 diabetic patients. Metabolism. 2000;49(6):704–8.PubMed
40.
go back to reference Gjerde J, Gandini S, Guerrieri-Gonzaga A, Haugan Moi LL, Aristarco V, Mellgren G, et al. Tissue distribution of 4-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen and tamoxifen-N-oxide. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;134(2):693–700.PubMedCentralPubMed Gjerde J, Gandini S, Guerrieri-Gonzaga A, Haugan Moi LL, Aristarco V, Mellgren G, et al. Tissue distribution of 4-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen and tamoxifen-N-oxide. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;134(2):693–700.PubMedCentralPubMed
41.
go back to reference Gjerde J, Geisler J, Lundgren S, Ekse D, Varhaug JE, Mellgren G, et al. Associations between tamoxifen, estrogens, and FSH serum levels during steady state tamoxifen treatment of postmenopausal women with breast cancer. BMC Cancer. 2010;10:313–25.PubMedCentralPubMed Gjerde J, Geisler J, Lundgren S, Ekse D, Varhaug JE, Mellgren G, et al. Associations between tamoxifen, estrogens, and FSH serum levels during steady state tamoxifen treatment of postmenopausal women with breast cancer. BMC Cancer. 2010;10:313–25.PubMedCentralPubMed
42.
go back to reference Gülçin I. Antioxidant and antiradical activities of l-carnitine. Life Sci. 2006;78(8):803–11.PubMed Gülçin I. Antioxidant and antiradical activities of l-carnitine. Life Sci. 2006;78(8):803–11.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Gunes D, Kirkim G, Kolatan E, Guneri EA, Ozogul C, Altun Z, et al. Evaluation of the effect of acetyl l-carnitine on experimental cisplatin ototoxicity and neurotoxicity. Chemotherapy. 2011;57(3):186–94.PubMed Gunes D, Kirkim G, Kolatan E, Guneri EA, Ozogul C, Altun Z, et al. Evaluation of the effect of acetyl l-carnitine on experimental cisplatin ototoxicity and neurotoxicity. Chemotherapy. 2011;57(3):186–94.PubMed
44.
go back to reference Hagen TM, Liu J, Lykkesfeldt J, Wehr CM, Ingersoll RT, Vinarsky V, et al. Feeding acetyl-l-carnitine and lipoic acid to old rats significantly improves metabolic function while decreasing oxidative stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(4):1870–5.PubMedCentralPubMed Hagen TM, Liu J, Lykkesfeldt J, Wehr CM, Ingersoll RT, Vinarsky V, et al. Feeding acetyl-l-carnitine and lipoic acid to old rats significantly improves metabolic function while decreasing oxidative stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(4):1870–5.PubMedCentralPubMed
45.
go back to reference Hansen MV, Madsen MT, Hageman I, Rasmussen LS, Bokmand S, Rosenberg J, et al. The effect of melatonin on depression, anxiety, cognitive function and sleep disturbances in patients with breast cancer. The MELODY trial: protocol for a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial. BMJ. 2012;2(1):e000647–55. Hansen MV, Madsen MT, Hageman I, Rasmussen LS, Bokmand S, Rosenberg J, et al. The effect of melatonin on depression, anxiety, cognitive function and sleep disturbances in patients with breast cancer. The MELODY trial: protocol for a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial. BMJ. 2012;2(1):e000647–55.
46.
47.
go back to reference Hoang BX, Graeme Shaw D, Pham P, Levine SA. Neuro-bioenergetic concepts in cancer prevention and treatment. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68(4):832–43.PubMed Hoang BX, Graeme Shaw D, Pham P, Levine SA. Neuro-bioenergetic concepts in cancer prevention and treatment. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68(4):832–43.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Hockenberry MJ, Hooke MC, Gregurich M, McCarthy K. Carnitine plasma levels and fatigue in children/adolescents receiving cisplatin, ifosfamide, or doxorubicin. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2009;31(9):664–9.PubMed Hockenberry MJ, Hooke MC, Gregurich M, McCarthy K. Carnitine plasma levels and fatigue in children/adolescents receiving cisplatin, ifosfamide, or doxorubicin. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2009;31(9):664–9.PubMed
49.
go back to reference Huiart L, Bouhnik AD, Rey D, Tarpin C, Cluze C, Bendiane MK, et al. Early discontinuation of tamoxifen intake in younger women with breast cancer: is it time to rethink the way it is prescribed? Eur J Cancer. 2012;48(13):1939–46.PubMed Huiart L, Bouhnik AD, Rey D, Tarpin C, Cluze C, Bendiane MK, et al. Early discontinuation of tamoxifen intake in younger women with breast cancer: is it time to rethink the way it is prescribed? Eur J Cancer. 2012;48(13):1939–46.PubMed
50.
go back to reference Husain S, Crosson CE. Role of PKCepsilon in PGF2alpha-stimulated MMP-2 secretion from human ciliary muscle cells. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2008;24(3):268–77.PubMedCentralPubMed Husain S, Crosson CE. Role of PKCepsilon in PGF2alpha-stimulated MMP-2 secretion from human ciliary muscle cells. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2008;24(3):268–77.PubMedCentralPubMed
51.
go back to reference Jeukendrup AE, Randell R. Fat burners: nutrition supplements that increase fat metabolism. Obes Rev. 2011;12(10):841–51.PubMed Jeukendrup AE, Randell R. Fat burners: nutrition supplements that increase fat metabolism. Obes Rev. 2011;12(10):841–51.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Jirillo E, Altamura M, Munno I, Pellegrino NM, Sabato R, Di Fabio S, et al. Effects of acetyl-l-carnitine oral administration on lymphocyte antibacterial activity and TNF-alpha levels in patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis. A randomized double blind versus placebo study. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 1991;13(1–2):135–46.PubMed Jirillo E, Altamura M, Munno I, Pellegrino NM, Sabato R, Di Fabio S, et al. Effects of acetyl-l-carnitine oral administration on lymphocyte antibacterial activity and TNF-alpha levels in patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis. A randomized double blind versus placebo study. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 1991;13(1–2):135–46.PubMed
53.
go back to reference Khalil RM, Darwish H, El-Ashmawy NE, El-Bahrawy HA. l-carnitine ameliorates tamoxifen-associated adverse effects in breast cancer women. Int J Cancer Res. 2013;47(2):1149–57. Khalil RM, Darwish H, El-Ashmawy NE, El-Bahrawy HA. l-carnitine ameliorates tamoxifen-associated adverse effects in breast cancer women. Int J Cancer Res. 2013;47(2):1149–57.
54.
go back to reference Khalil RM, El-Ashmawy NE, El-Bahrawy HA, Darwish H. l-carnitine supplement to tamoxifen-treated breast cancer patients: protection against cardiovascular risk. Int J Med Sci. 2013;46(2):1245–54. Khalil RM, El-Ashmawy NE, El-Bahrawy HA, Darwish H. l-carnitine supplement to tamoxifen-treated breast cancer patients: protection against cardiovascular risk. Int J Med Sci. 2013;46(2):1245–54.
55.
go back to reference Khalil RM, El-Bahrawy HA, El-Ashmawy NE, Darwish H. l-carnitine decreases Her-2/neu in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen. IOSR-JPBS. 2013;5(2):91–8. Khalil RM, El-Bahrawy HA, El-Ashmawy NE, Darwish H. l-carnitine decreases Her-2/neu in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen. IOSR-JPBS. 2013;5(2):91–8.
56.
go back to reference Kumaran S, Subathra M, Balu M, Panneerselvam C. Supplementation of l-carnitine improves mitochondrial enzymes in heart and skeletal muscle of aged rats. Exp Aging Res. 2005;31(1):55–67.PubMed Kumaran S, Subathra M, Balu M, Panneerselvam C. Supplementation of l-carnitine improves mitochondrial enzymes in heart and skeletal muscle of aged rats. Exp Aging Res. 2005;31(1):55–67.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Lambrechts S, Decloedt J, Neven P. Breast cancer prevention: lifestyle changes and chemoprevention. Acta Clin Belg. 2011;66(4):283–92.PubMed Lambrechts S, Decloedt J, Neven P. Breast cancer prevention: lifestyle changes and chemoprevention. Acta Clin Belg. 2011;66(4):283–92.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Landree LE, Hanlon AL, Strong DW, Rumbaugh G, Miller IM, Thupari JN, et al. C75, a fatty acid synthase inhibitor, modulates AMP-activated protein kinase to alter neuronal energy metabolism. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:3817–27.PubMed Landree LE, Hanlon AL, Strong DW, Rumbaugh G, Miller IM, Thupari JN, et al. C75, a fatty acid synthase inhibitor, modulates AMP-activated protein kinase to alter neuronal energy metabolism. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:3817–27.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Lango R, Smoleński RT, Rogowski J, Siebert J, Wujtewicz M, Słomińska EM, et al. Propionyl-l-carnitine improves hemodynamics and metabolic markers of cardiac perfusion during coronary surgery in diabetic patients. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2005;19(4):267–75.PubMed Lango R, Smoleński RT, Rogowski J, Siebert J, Wujtewicz M, Słomińska EM, et al. Propionyl-l-carnitine improves hemodynamics and metabolic markers of cardiac perfusion during coronary surgery in diabetic patients. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2005;19(4):267–75.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Legault C, Maki PM, Resnick SM, Coker L, Hogan P, Bevers TB, et al. Effects of tamoxifen and raloxifene on memory and other cognitive abilities: cognition in the study of tamoxifen and raloxifene. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(31):5144–52.PubMedCentralPubMed Legault C, Maki PM, Resnick SM, Coker L, Hogan P, Bevers TB, et al. Effects of tamoxifen and raloxifene on memory and other cognitive abilities: cognition in the study of tamoxifen and raloxifene. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(31):5144–52.PubMedCentralPubMed
61.
go back to reference Li H, Li QD, Wang PZ, Wang MS, Cui J, Diao TY, et al. The effect of oxidized low-density lipoprotein combined with adriamycin on the proliferation of Eca-109 cell line. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10:108–18.PubMedCentralPubMed Li H, Li QD, Wang PZ, Wang MS, Cui J, Diao TY, et al. The effect of oxidized low-density lipoprotein combined with adriamycin on the proliferation of Eca-109 cell line. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10:108–18.PubMedCentralPubMed
62.
go back to reference Lien EA, Anker G, Ueland PM. Pharmacokinetics of tamoxifen in premenopausal and postmenopausal women with breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1995;55(2):229–31.PubMed Lien EA, Anker G, Ueland PM. Pharmacokinetics of tamoxifen in premenopausal and postmenopausal women with breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1995;55(2):229–31.PubMed
63.
go back to reference Macciò A, Madeddu C. Obesity, inflammation, and postmenopausal breast cancer: therapeutic implications. Sci Wor J. 2011;11:2020–36. Macciò A, Madeddu C. Obesity, inflammation, and postmenopausal breast cancer: therapeutic implications. Sci Wor J. 2011;11:2020–36.
64.
go back to reference Maestri A, De Pasquale CA, Cundari S, Zanna C, Cortesi E, Crinò L. A pilot study on the effect of acetyl-l-carnitine in paclitaxel- and cisplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy. Tumori. 2005;91:135–8.PubMed Maestri A, De Pasquale CA, Cundari S, Zanna C, Cortesi E, Crinò L. A pilot study on the effect of acetyl-l-carnitine in paclitaxel- and cisplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy. Tumori. 2005;91:135–8.PubMed
65.
go back to reference Malaguarnera M, Pistone G, Astuto M, Vecchio I, Raffaele R, Lo Giudice E, et al. Effects of l-acetylcarnitine on cirrhotic patients with hepatic coma: randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51(12):2242–7.PubMed Malaguarnera M, Pistone G, Astuto M, Vecchio I, Raffaele R, Lo Giudice E, et al. Effects of l-acetylcarnitine on cirrhotic patients with hepatic coma: randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51(12):2242–7.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Micheletti R, Giacalone G, Bianchi G. Effect of propionyl-l-carnitine on the mechanics of right and left papillary muscles from volume-overloaded rat hearts. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1996;27(1):52–7.PubMed Micheletti R, Giacalone G, Bianchi G. Effect of propionyl-l-carnitine on the mechanics of right and left papillary muscles from volume-overloaded rat hearts. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1996;27(1):52–7.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Mintz M. Carnitine in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Child Neurol. 1995;10(2):S40–4.PubMed Mintz M. Carnitine in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Child Neurol. 1995;10(2):S40–4.PubMed
68.
go back to reference Montgomery SA, Thal LJ, Amrein R. Meta-analysis of double blind randomized controlled clinical trials of acetyl-l-carnitine versus placebo in the treatment of mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's disease. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;18(2):61–71.PubMed Montgomery SA, Thal LJ, Amrein R. Meta-analysis of double blind randomized controlled clinical trials of acetyl-l-carnitine versus placebo in the treatment of mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's disease. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;18(2):61–71.PubMed
69.
go back to reference Mook D, Felger J, Graves F, Wallen K, Wilson ME. Tamoxifen fails to affect central serotonergic tone but increases indices of anxiety in female rhesus macaques. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30(3):273–83.PubMed Mook D, Felger J, Graves F, Wallen K, Wilson ME. Tamoxifen fails to affect central serotonergic tone but increases indices of anxiety in female rhesus macaques. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30(3):273–83.PubMed
70.
go back to reference Moon YW, Park S, Sohn JH, Kang DR, Koo JS, Park HS, et al. Clinical significance of progesterone receptor and HER2 status in estrogen receptor-positive, operable breast cancer with adjuvant tamoxifen. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2011;137(7):1123–30.PubMed Moon YW, Park S, Sohn JH, Kang DR, Koo JS, Park HS, et al. Clinical significance of progesterone receptor and HER2 status in estrogen receptor-positive, operable breast cancer with adjuvant tamoxifen. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2011;137(7):1123–30.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Nahta R, Yu D, Hung MC, Hortobagyi GN, Esteva FJ. Mechanisms of disease: understanding resistance to HER2-targeted therapy in human breast cancer. Nat Clin Pract Oncol. 2006;3:269–80.PubMed Nahta R, Yu D, Hung MC, Hortobagyi GN, Esteva FJ. Mechanisms of disease: understanding resistance to HER2-targeted therapy in human breast cancer. Nat Clin Pract Oncol. 2006;3:269–80.PubMed
72.
go back to reference Naini AE, Sadeghi M, Mortazavi M, Moghadasi M, Harandi AA. Oral carnitine supplementation for dyslipidemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2012;23(3):484–8.PubMed Naini AE, Sadeghi M, Mortazavi M, Moghadasi M, Harandi AA. Oral carnitine supplementation for dyslipidemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2012;23(3):484–8.PubMed
73.
go back to reference Nazarewicz RR, Zenebe WJ, Parihar A, Larson SK, Alidema E, Choi J, et al. Tamoxifen induces oxidative stress and mitochondrial apoptosis via stimulating mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase. Cancer Res. 2007;67:1282–90.PubMed Nazarewicz RR, Zenebe WJ, Parihar A, Larson SK, Alidema E, Choi J, et al. Tamoxifen induces oxidative stress and mitochondrial apoptosis via stimulating mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase. Cancer Res. 2007;67:1282–90.PubMed
74.
go back to reference Neuhouser ML, Schenk J, Song YJ, Tangen CM, Goodman PJ, Pollak M, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and risk of benign prostate hyperplasia in the prostate cancer prevention trial. Prostate. 2008;68(13):1477–86.PubMedCentralPubMed Neuhouser ML, Schenk J, Song YJ, Tangen CM, Goodman PJ, Pollak M, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and risk of benign prostate hyperplasia in the prostate cancer prevention trial. Prostate. 2008;68(13):1477–86.PubMedCentralPubMed
75.
go back to reference Ng VL. Prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time assay considerations. Clin Lab Med. 2009;29:253–63.PubMed Ng VL. Prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time assay considerations. Clin Lab Med. 2009;29:253–63.PubMed
76.
go back to reference Ntukidem NI, Nguyen AT, Stearns V, Rehman M, Schott A, Skaar T, et al. Estrogen receptor genotypes, menopausal status, and the lipid effects of tamoxifen. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83(5):702–10.PubMedCentralPubMed Ntukidem NI, Nguyen AT, Stearns V, Rehman M, Schott A, Skaar T, et al. Estrogen receptor genotypes, menopausal status, and the lipid effects of tamoxifen. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83(5):702–10.PubMedCentralPubMed
77.
go back to reference Owen L, Sunram-Lea SI. Metabolic agents that enhance ATP can improve cognitive functioning: a review of the evidence for glucose, oxygen, pyruvate, creatine, and l-carnitine. Nutrients. 2011;3(8):735–55.PubMedCentralPubMed Owen L, Sunram-Lea SI. Metabolic agents that enhance ATP can improve cognitive functioning: a review of the evidence for glucose, oxygen, pyruvate, creatine, and l-carnitine. Nutrients. 2011;3(8):735–55.PubMedCentralPubMed
78.
go back to reference Palva T, Ranta H, Koivisto AM, Pylkkänen L, Cuzick J, Holli K. A double-blind placebo-controlled study to evaluate endometrial safety and gynaecological symptoms in women treated for up to 5 years with tamoxifen or placebo—a substudy for IBIS I Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. Eur J Cancer. 2013;49(1):45–51.PubMed Palva T, Ranta H, Koivisto AM, Pylkkänen L, Cuzick J, Holli K. A double-blind placebo-controlled study to evaluate endometrial safety and gynaecological symptoms in women treated for up to 5 years with tamoxifen or placebo—a substudy for IBIS I Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. Eur J Cancer. 2013;49(1):45–51.PubMed
79.
go back to reference Porter NS, Jason LA, Boulton A, Bothne N, Coleman B. Alternative medical interventions used in the treatment and management of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(3):235–49.PubMed Porter NS, Jason LA, Boulton A, Bothne N, Coleman B. Alternative medical interventions used in the treatment and management of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(3):235–49.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Pritchard KI, Abramson BL. Cardiovascular health and aromatase inhibitors. Drugs. 2006;66(13):1727–40.PubMed Pritchard KI, Abramson BL. Cardiovascular health and aromatase inhibitors. Drugs. 2006;66(13):1727–40.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Puca FM, Genco S, Specchio LM, Brancasi B, D'Ursi R, Prudenzano A, et al. Clinical pharmacodynamics of acetyl-l-carnitine in patients with Parkinson's disease. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1990;10(1–2):139–43.PubMed Puca FM, Genco S, Specchio LM, Brancasi B, D'Ursi R, Prudenzano A, et al. Clinical pharmacodynamics of acetyl-l-carnitine in patients with Parkinson's disease. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1990;10(1–2):139–43.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Puig T, Relat J, Marrero PF, Haro D, Brunet J, Colomer R. Green tea catechin inhibits fatty acid synthase without stimulating carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 or inducing weight loss in experimental animals. Anticancer Res. 2008;28(6A):3671–6.PubMed Puig T, Relat J, Marrero PF, Haro D, Brunet J, Colomer R. Green tea catechin inhibits fatty acid synthase without stimulating carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 or inducing weight loss in experimental animals. Anticancer Res. 2008;28(6A):3671–6.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Queiroga FL, Perez-Alenza MD, Silvan G, Pena L, Lopes CS, Illera JC. Crosstalk between GH/IGF-I axis and steroid hormones (progesterone, 17β-estradiol) in canine mammary tumours. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2008;110:76–82.PubMed Queiroga FL, Perez-Alenza MD, Silvan G, Pena L, Lopes CS, Illera JC. Crosstalk between GH/IGF-I axis and steroid hormones (progesterone, 17β-estradiol) in canine mammary tumours. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2008;110:76–82.PubMed
84.
go back to reference Radhakrishnan Y, Busby Jr WH, Shen X, Maile LA, Clemmons DR. Insulin-like growth factor-I-stimulated insulin receptor substrate-1 negatively regulates Src homology 2 domain-containing protein-tyrosine phosphatase substrate-1 function in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(21):15682–95.PubMedCentralPubMed Radhakrishnan Y, Busby Jr WH, Shen X, Maile LA, Clemmons DR. Insulin-like growth factor-I-stimulated insulin receptor substrate-1 negatively regulates Src homology 2 domain-containing protein-tyrosine phosphatase substrate-1 function in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(21):15682–95.PubMedCentralPubMed
85.
go back to reference Rosca MG, Lemieux H, Hoppel CL. Mitochondria in the elderly: is acetylcarnitine a rejuvenator? Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2009;61(14):1332–42.PubMed Rosca MG, Lemieux H, Hoppel CL. Mitochondria in the elderly: is acetylcarnitine a rejuvenator? Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2009;61(14):1332–42.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Samaddar JS, Gaddy VT, Duplantier J, Thandavan SP, Shah M, Smith MJ, et al. A role for macroautophagy in protection against 4-hydroxytamoxifen-induced cell death and the development of antiestrogen resistance. Mol Cancer Ther. 2008;7(9):2977–87.PubMed Samaddar JS, Gaddy VT, Duplantier J, Thandavan SP, Shah M, Smith MJ, et al. A role for macroautophagy in protection against 4-hydroxytamoxifen-induced cell death and the development of antiestrogen resistance. Mol Cancer Ther. 2008;7(9):2977–87.PubMed
87.
go back to reference Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, Sigurdsson G, Wareham N, Bingham S, et al. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 western prospective studies. Circulation. 2007;115(4):450–8.PubMed Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, Sigurdsson G, Wareham N, Bingham S, et al. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 western prospective studies. Circulation. 2007;115(4):450–8.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Sener G, Ekşioğlu-Demiralp E, Cetiner M, Ercan F, Sirvanci S, Gedik N, et al. l-carnitine ameliorates methotrexate-induced oxidative organ injury and inhibits leukocyte death. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2006;22(1):47–60.PubMed Sener G, Ekşioğlu-Demiralp E, Cetiner M, Ercan F, Sirvanci S, Gedik N, et al. l-carnitine ameliorates methotrexate-induced oxidative organ injury and inhibits leukocyte death. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2006;22(1):47–60.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Sharma S, Neetu S, Wiseman DA, Carter L, Kumar S, Hou Y, et al. Altered carnitine homeostasis is associated with decreased mitochondrial function and altered nitric oxide signaling in lambs with pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2008;294:L46–56.PubMedCentralPubMed Sharma S, Neetu S, Wiseman DA, Carter L, Kumar S, Hou Y, et al. Altered carnitine homeostasis is associated with decreased mitochondrial function and altered nitric oxide signaling in lambs with pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2008;294:L46–56.PubMedCentralPubMed
90.
go back to reference Silvério R, Laviano A, Rossi Fanelli F, Seelaender M. l-carnitine and cancer cachexia: clinical and experimental aspects. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2011;2(1):37–44.PubMedCentralPubMed Silvério R, Laviano A, Rossi Fanelli F, Seelaender M. l-carnitine and cancer cachexia: clinical and experimental aspects. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2011;2(1):37–44.PubMedCentralPubMed
91.
go back to reference Singh B, Bhat NK, Bhat HK. Partial inhibition of estrogen-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats by tamoxifen: balance between oxidant stress and estrogen responsiveness. PLoS One. 2011;6(9):e25125–36.PubMedCentralPubMed Singh B, Bhat NK, Bhat HK. Partial inhibition of estrogen-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats by tamoxifen: balance between oxidant stress and estrogen responsiveness. PLoS One. 2011;6(9):e25125–36.PubMedCentralPubMed
92.
go back to reference Spichiger E, Müller-Fröhlich C, Denhaerynck K, Stoll H, Hantikainen V, Dodd M. Prevalence of symptoms, with a focus on fatigue, and changes of symptoms over three months in outpatients receiving cancer chemotherapy. Swiss Med Wkly. 2011;141:w13303–13.PubMed Spichiger E, Müller-Fröhlich C, Denhaerynck K, Stoll H, Hantikainen V, Dodd M. Prevalence of symptoms, with a focus on fatigue, and changes of symptoms over three months in outpatients receiving cancer chemotherapy. Swiss Med Wkly. 2011;141:w13303–13.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Thewes B, Meiser B, Duric VM, Stockler MR, Taylor A, Stuart-Harris R, et al. What survival benefits do premenopausal patients with early breast cancer need to make endocrine therapy worthwhile? Lancet Oncol. 2005;6(8):581–8.PubMed Thewes B, Meiser B, Duric VM, Stockler MR, Taylor A, Stuart-Harris R, et al. What survival benefits do premenopausal patients with early breast cancer need to make endocrine therapy worthwhile? Lancet Oncol. 2005;6(8):581–8.PubMed
94.
go back to reference Tominaga T, Kimijima I, Kimura M, Takatsuka Y, Takashima S, Nomura Y, et al. Effects of toremifene and tamoxifen on lipid profiles in postmenopausal patients with early breast cancer: interim results from a Japanese phase III trial. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2010;40(7):627–33.PubMed Tominaga T, Kimijima I, Kimura M, Takatsuka Y, Takashima S, Nomura Y, et al. Effects of toremifene and tamoxifen on lipid profiles in postmenopausal patients with early breast cancer: interim results from a Japanese phase III trial. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2010;40(7):627–33.PubMed
95.
go back to reference Tsang RY, Finn RS. Beyond trastuzumab: novel therapeutic strategies in HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2012;106:6–13.PubMedCentralPubMed Tsang RY, Finn RS. Beyond trastuzumab: novel therapeutic strategies in HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2012;106:6–13.PubMedCentralPubMed
96.
go back to reference Tunstall RJ, McAinch AJ, Hargreaves M, van Loon LJ, Cameron-Smith D. Reduced plasma free fatty acid availability during exercise: effect on gene expression. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007;99(5):485–93.PubMed Tunstall RJ, McAinch AJ, Hargreaves M, van Loon LJ, Cameron-Smith D. Reduced plasma free fatty acid availability during exercise: effect on gene expression. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007;99(5):485–93.PubMed
97.
98.
go back to reference Vermeulen RC, Scholte HR. Exploratory open label, randomized study of acetyl- and propionylcarnitine in chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(2):276–82.PubMed Vermeulen RC, Scholte HR. Exploratory open label, randomized study of acetyl- and propionylcarnitine in chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(2):276–82.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Vgontzas AN, Bixler EO, Chrousos GP. Obesity-related sleepiness and fatigue: the role of the stress system and cytokines. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006;1083:329–44.PubMed Vgontzas AN, Bixler EO, Chrousos GP. Obesity-related sleepiness and fatigue: the role of the stress system and cytokines. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006;1083:329–44.PubMed
100.
go back to reference Wenzel U, Nickel A, Daniel H. Increased carnitine-dependent fatty acid uptake into mitochondria of human colon cancer cells induces apoptosis. J Nutr. 2005;135(6):1510–4.PubMed Wenzel U, Nickel A, Daniel H. Increased carnitine-dependent fatty acid uptake into mitochondria of human colon cancer cells induces apoptosis. J Nutr. 2005;135(6):1510–4.PubMed
101.
go back to reference Westlund KN, Lu Y, Werrbach-Perez K, Hulsebosch CE, Morgan B, Pizzo DP, et al. Effects of nerve growth factor and acetyl-l-carnitine arginyl amide on the human neuronal line HCN-1A. Int J Dev Neurosci. 1992;10(5):361–73.PubMed Westlund KN, Lu Y, Werrbach-Perez K, Hulsebosch CE, Morgan B, Pizzo DP, et al. Effects of nerve growth factor and acetyl-l-carnitine arginyl amide on the human neuronal line HCN-1A. Int J Dev Neurosci. 1992;10(5):361–73.PubMed
102.
go back to reference Winter S, Jue K, Prochazka J, Francis P, Hamilton W, Linn L, et al. The role of l-carnitine in pediatric cardiomyopathy. J Child Neurol. 1995;10(2):S45–51.PubMed Winter S, Jue K, Prochazka J, Francis P, Hamilton W, Linn L, et al. The role of l-carnitine in pediatric cardiomyopathy. J Child Neurol. 1995;10(2):S45–51.PubMed
103.
go back to reference Xu S, Flanagan JL, Simmons PA, Vehige J, Willcox MD, Garrett Q. Transport of l-carnitine in human corneal and conjunctival epithelial cells. Mol Vis. 2010;16:1823–31.PubMedCentralPubMed Xu S, Flanagan JL, Simmons PA, Vehige J, Willcox MD, Garrett Q. Transport of l-carnitine in human corneal and conjunctival epithelial cells. Mol Vis. 2010;16:1823–31.PubMedCentralPubMed
104.
go back to reference Yamada S, Matsuda R, Nishimura F, Nakagawa I, Motoyama Y, Park YS, et al. Carnitine-induced senescence in glioblastoma cells. Exp Ther Med. 2012;4(1):21–5.PubMedCentralPubMed Yamada S, Matsuda R, Nishimura F, Nakagawa I, Motoyama Y, Park YS, et al. Carnitine-induced senescence in glioblastoma cells. Exp Ther Med. 2012;4(1):21–5.PubMedCentralPubMed
105.
go back to reference Yuvaraj S, Premkumar VG, Vijayasarathy K, Gangadaran SGD, Sachdanandam P. Ameliorating effect of coenzyme Q10, riboflavin and niacin in tamoxifen-treated postmenopausal breast cancer patients with special reference to lipids and lipoproteins. Clin Biochem. 2007;40:623–8.PubMed Yuvaraj S, Premkumar VG, Vijayasarathy K, Gangadaran SGD, Sachdanandam P. Ameliorating effect of coenzyme Q10, riboflavin and niacin in tamoxifen-treated postmenopausal breast cancer patients with special reference to lipids and lipoproteins. Clin Biochem. 2007;40:623–8.PubMed
106.
go back to reference Zhao Y, Zhang J, Zhang J, Wu J. Diabetes mellitus is associated with shortened activated partial thromboplastin time and increased fibrinogen values. PLoS One. 2011;6(1):e16470–3.PubMedCentralPubMed Zhao Y, Zhang J, Zhang J, Wu J. Diabetes mellitus is associated with shortened activated partial thromboplastin time and increased fibrinogen values. PLoS One. 2011;6(1):e16470–3.PubMedCentralPubMed
Metadata
Title
A review on the role of l-carnitine in the management of tamoxifen side effects in treated women with breast cancer
Authors
Nahla E. El-Ashmawy
Rania M. Khalil
Publication date
01-04-2014
Publisher
Springer Netherlands
Published in
Tumor Biology / Issue 4/2014
Print ISSN: 1010-4283
Electronic ISSN: 1423-0380
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-013-1477-5

Other articles of this Issue 4/2014

Tumor Biology 4/2014 Go to the issue
Webinar | 19-02-2024 | 17:30 (CET)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on antibody–drug conjugates in cancer

Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) are novel agents that have shown promise across multiple tumor types. Explore the current landscape of ADCs in breast and lung cancer with our experts, and gain insights into the mechanism of action, key clinical trials data, existing challenges, and future directions.

Dr. Véronique Diéras
Prof. Fabrice Barlesi
Developed by: Springer Medicine