Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress 2023 EHA Congress 2023 ASCO Annual Meeting
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Prevention Science
Published in: Prevention Science 2/2018

01-02-2018

Promoting Afterschool Quality and Positive Youth Development: Cluster Randomized Trial of the Pax Good Behavior Game

Authors: Emilie Phillips Smith, D. Wayne Osgood, Yoonkyung Oh, Linda C. Caldwell

Published in: Prevention Science | Issue 2/2018

Login to get access

Abstract

This randomized trial tested a strategy originally developed for school settings, the Pax Good Behavior Game (PAX GBG), in the new context of afterschool programs. We examined this approach in afterschool since 70% of all juvenile crime occurs between the hours of 3–6 pm, making afterschool an important setting for prevention and promotion. Dual-career and working families need monitoring and supervision for their children in quality settings that are safe and appropriately structured. While substantial work has identified important features of afterschool programs, increasing attention is being given to how to foster quality. PAX GBG, with its focus on shared norms, cooperative teams, contingent activity rewards, and liberal praise, could potentially enhance not only appropriate structure and supportive relationships, but also youth self-regulation, co-regulation, and socio-emotional development. This study examined the PAX GBG among 76 afterschool programs, serving 811 youth ages 5–12, who were diverse in race-ethnicity, socio-economic status, and geographic locale. Demographically matched pairs of afterschool programs were randomized to PAX GBG or treatment-as-usual. Independent observers conducted ratings of implementation fidelity and program quality across time; along with surveys of children’s problem and prosocial behavior. Interaction effects were found using hierarchical linear models such that experimental programs evidencing higher implementation fidelity demonstrated better program quality than controls, (i.e., less harshness, increased appropriate structure, support, and engagement), as well as reduced child-reported hyperactivity and intent-to-treat effects on prosocial behavior. This study demonstrates that best practices fostered by PAX GBG and implemented with fidelity in afterschool result in higher quality contexts for positive youth development.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
Afterschool Alliance (2014). America After 3pm; Afterschool Programs in Demand. Washington, D.C.
Arnett, J. (1989). Caregivers in day-care centers: Does training matter? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 541–552.CrossRef
Barker, R. G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying the environment of human behavior. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
Barrish, H., Saunders, M., & Wolf, M. M. (1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 2, 119–124.CrossRef
Becker, K. D., Bradshaw, C. P., Domitrovich, C., & Ialongo, N. S. (2013). Coaching teachers to improve implementation of the good behavior game. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 40, 482–493.CrossRefPubMed
Belgrave, F. Z., Reed, M. C., Plybon, L. E., Butler, D. S., Allison, K. W., & Davis, T. (2004). An evaluation of Sisters of Nia: A cultural program for African American girls. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 329–343.CrossRef
Browne, D. (2015). Growing together, learning together: What cities have discovered about building afterschool systems. New York, NY: Wallace Foundation.
Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2002). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Prevention & Treatment, 5, 15a.
Collins, L. M., Murphy, S. A., & Strecher, V. (2007). The multiphase optimization strategy (MOST) and the sequential multiple assignment randomized trial (SMART): New methods for more potent eHealth interventions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32, S112–S118.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
Cross, A. B., Gottfredson, D. C., Wilson, D. M., Rorie, M., & Connell, N. (2010). Implementation quality and positive experiences in after-school programs. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 370–380.CrossRefPubMed
Domitrovich, C. E., Gest, S. D., Gill, S., Bierman, K. L., Welsh, J. A., & Jones, D. (2009). Fostering highquality teaching with an enriched curriculum and professional development support: The head start REDI program. American Educational Research Journal, 567–597. doi:10.​3102/​0002831208328089​.
Domitrovich, C. E., Bradshaw, C. P., Greenberg, M. T., Embry, D., Poduska, J. M., & Ialongo, N. S. (2010). Integrated models of school-based prevention: Logic and theory. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 71–88.PubMedPubMedCentral
Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 327–350.CrossRefPubMed
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 294–309. doi:10.​1007/​s10464-010.CrossRef
Eccles, J., & Gootman, J. A. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Committee on community-level programs for youth. Board on children, youth and families, division of behavioral and social sciences and education, national research council and institute of medicine. Washington, DC: National Academies of Science.
Embry, D. D., Richardson, C., Schaffer, K., et al. (2010). PAX good behavior game (3rd ed.). Tucson: PAXIS Institute.
Fairweather, G. W. (1972). Social change: The challenge to survival. Morristown: General Learning Press.
Fleiss, J. L. (1981). The measurement of interrater agreement. In J. L. Fleiss (Ed.), Statistical methods for rates and proportions (pp. 212–236). New York: John Wiley.
Frazier, S. L., Cappella, E., & Atkins, M. S. (2007). Linking mental health and after school systems for children in urban poverty: Preventing problems, promoting possibilities. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 34, 389–399.CrossRefPubMed
Frazier, S. L., Mehta, T. G., Atkins, M. S., Hur, K., & Rusch, D. (2013). Not just a walk in the park: Efficacy to effectiveness for after school programs in communities of concentrated urban poverty. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 40, 406–418.CrossRefPubMed
Fredricks, J. A., Bohnert, A. M., & Burdette, K. (2014). Moving beyond attendance: Lessons learned from assessing engagement in afterschool contexts. New Directions for Youth Development, 144, 45–58.CrossRef
Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (2003). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 173–177.CrossRefPubMed
Gottfredson, D. C., Gerstenblith, S. A., Soulé, D. A., Womer, S. C., & Lu, S. (2004). Do after school programs reduce delinquency? Prevention Science, 5, 253–266.CrossRefPubMed
Gottfredson, D., Cross, A. B., Wilson, D., Rorie, M., & Connell, N. (2010). Effects of participation in after-school programs for middle school students: A randomized trial. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3, 282–313. doi:10.​1080/​1934574100368665​9.CrossRef
Granger, R. C. (2010). Understanding and improving the effectiveness of after-school practice. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 441–446.CrossRefPubMed
Heath, S. B., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1994). The best of both worlds: Connecting schools and community youth organizations for all-day, all-year learning. Educational Administration Quarterly, 30, 278–300.CrossRef
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hynes, K., & Sanders, F. (2011). Diverging experiences during out-of-school time: The race gap in exposure to after-school programs. The Journal of Negro Education, 80, 464–476.
Hynes, K., Smith, E., & Perkins, D. (2009). Piloting a classroom-based intervention in after-school Programmes: A case study in science migration. Journal of Children's Services, 4, 4–20.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
Ialongo, N. S., Werthamer, L., Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Wang, S., & Lin, Y. (1999). Proximal impact of two first-grade preventive interventions on the early risk behaviors for later substance abuse, depression, and antisocial behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 599–641.CrossRefPubMed
Ialongo, N., Poduska, J., Werthamer, L., & Kellam, S. (2001). The distal impact of two first grade preventive interventions on conduct problems and disorder and mental health service need and utilization in early adolescence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 146–160.CrossRef
James-Burdumy, S., Dynarski, M., Moore, M., Deke, J., Mansfield, W., & Pistorino, C. (2005). When Schools Stay Open Late: The National Evaluation of the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program: Final Report. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, 2005. Available at http://​www.​ed.​gov/​ies/​ncee.
Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Poduska, J. M., Ialongoc, N. S., Wang, W., Toyinbo, P., Petras, H., Ford, C., Windham, A., & Wilcox, C. H. (2008). Effects of a universal classroom behavior management program in first and second grades on young adult behavioral, psychiatric, and social outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95, SS5–S28. doi:10.​1016/​j.​drugalcdep.​2008.​01.​004.CrossRef
Kuperminc, G. P., Smith, E. P., & Henrich, C. C. (2013). Introduction to the special issue on “Social and motivational processes in after-school settings: Bridging gaps between theory, research, and practice”. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 33, 5–16.CrossRef
Lannie, A. L., & McCurdy, B. L. (2007). Preventing disruptive behavior in the urban classroom: Effects of the good behavior game on student and teacher behavior. Education & Treatment of Children, 30, 85–98.CrossRef
Larson, R. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55, 170–183.CrossRefPubMed
Lauer, P. A., Akiba, M., Wilkerson, S. B., Apthorp, H. S., Snow, D., & Martin-Glenn, M. (2006). Out-of-school-time programs: A meta-analysis of effects for at-risk students. Review of Educational Research, 76, 275–313.CrossRef
Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Gestsdottir, S., et al. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 17–71.CrossRef
Lillehoj, C. J., Griffin, K. W., & Spoth, R. (2004). Program provider and observer ratings of school-based preventive intervention implementation: Agreement and relation to youth outcomes. Health Education and Behavior, 31, 242–257.CrossRef
Little, P., Wimer, C., & Weiss, H. B. (2008). After school programs in the 21st century: Their potential and what it takes to achieve it. Issues and opportunities in out-of-school time evaluation, 10, 1–12.
Mahoney, J. L., & Zigler, E. F. (2006). Translating science to policy under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Lessons from the national evaluation of the 21st-Century Community Learning Centers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 282–294.CrossRef
Mahoney, J. L., Stattin, H., & Lord, H. (2004). Unstructured youth recreation centre participation and antisocial behavior development: Selection influences and the moderating role of antisocial peers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 553–560.CrossRef
Mahoney, J. L., Lord, H., & Carryl, E. (2005). An ecological analysis of after-school program participation and the development of academic performance and motivational attributes for disadvantaged children. Child Development, 76, 811–825.CrossRefPubMed
Mellor, D. (2004). Furthering the use of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire: Reliability with younger child respondents. Psychological Assessment, 16, 396–401.CrossRefPubMed
Moncher, F. J., & Prinz, R. J. (1991). Treatment fidelity in outcome studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 247–266.CrossRef
Nunnally, J., & Berstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Odgers, C. L., Moffett, T. E., Tach, M. L., Sampson, R. J., Taylor, A., & Matthews, C. L. (2009). The protective effects of neighborhood collective efficacy on British children growing up in deprivation: A developmental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 45, 942–957.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
Oh, Y., Osgood, D. W., & Smith, E. P. (2015). Measuring afterschool program quality using setting-level observational approaches. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35, 681–713.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
Osgood, D. W., & Anderson, A. L. (2004). Unstructured socializing and rates of delinquency. Criminology, 3, 519.CrossRef
Pas, E. T., Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). Examining contextual influences on classroom-based implementation of positive behavior support strategies: Findings from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 16(8), 1096–1106.
Pianta, R. C., & Hamre, B. K. (2009). Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observation can leverage capacity. Educational Researcher, 38, 109–119.CrossRef
Pierce, K. M., Hamm, J. V., & Vandell, D. L. (1999). Experiences in after-school programs and children’s adjustment in first-grade classrooms. Child Development, 70, 756–767.CrossRefPubMed
Pittman, K. J. (1991). Promoting youth development: Strengthening the role of youth serving and community organizations. Washington, D.C.: Center for Youth Development and Family Research.
Rasbash, J., Steele, F., Browne, W. J., & Goldstein, H. (2012). A User's Guide to MLwiN Version 2.26. Bristol: University of Bristol.
Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. E. (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Riggs, N. R., Bohnert, A. M., Guzman, M. D., & Davidson, D. (2010). Examining the potential of community-based after-school programs for Latino youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 417–429.CrossRefPubMed
Russo, M. F., Stokes, G. S., Lahey, B. B., Christ, M. A. G., McBurnett, K., Loeber, R., et al. (1993). A sensation seeking scale for children: Further refinement and psychometric development. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15, 69–86.CrossRef
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.CrossRefPubMed
Sheldon, J., Arbreton, A., Hopkins, L., & Grossman, J. B. (2010). Investing in success: Key strategies for building quality in after-school programs. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 394–404.CrossRefPubMed
Shinn, M., & Rapkin, B. D. (2000). Cross-level research without cross-ups in community psychology. In Handbook of community psychology (pp. 669–695). USA: Springer.CrossRef
Smith, C., & Hohmann, C. (2005). Full findings from the Youth PQA validation study. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
Smith, E. P., Boutte, G. S., Zigler, E., & Finn-Stevenson, M. (2004). Opportunities for schools to promote resilience in children and youth. In K. I. Maton, C. J. Schellenbach, B. J. Leadbetter, & A. L. Solarz (Eds.), Investing in children, youth, families, and communities: Strengths-based research and policy. Washington, D. C: American Psychological Association.
Smith, C., Akiva, T., Sugar, S. A., Devaney, T., Lo, Y.-J., Frank, K., Peck, S., & Cortina, K. (2012). Continuous quality improvement in afterschool settings: Impact findings from the Youth Program Quality Intervention study. Ypsilanti, MI: David P. Weikart Center for Youth Program Quality. Washington, DC: Forum for Youth Investment.
Smith, E. P., Osgood, D. W., Caldwell, L. C., Hynes, K., & Perkins, D. F. (2013). Measuring collective efficacy among children in community-based afterschool: Pathways toward prevention and positive youth development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52, 27-40. doi:10.​1007/​s10464-013-9574-6.
Smith, E. P., Wise, E., Rosen, H., Rosen, A., Childs, S., & McManus, M. (2014). Top-down, bottom-up, and around the jungle gym. A social processes and networks approaches to building learning communities in afterschool. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53, 491–502. doi:10.​1007/​s10464-014-9656-0.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 National Report (pp. 1–261). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
Stuhlman, M. W., Hamre, B. K., Downer, J. T., & Pianta, R. C. (2010). A practitioner’s guide to conducting classroom observations: What the research tells us about choosing and using observational systems. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning.
Tebes, J. K., Feinn, R., Vanderploeg, J. J., Chinman, M. J., Shepard, J., Brabham, T., et al. (2007). Impact of a positive youth development program in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 239–247.CrossRefPubMed
Wanless, S. B., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2015). Readiness to implement school-based social-emotional learning interventions: Using research on factors related to implementation to maximize quality. Prevention Science, 16(8), 1037–1043.
Weiss, H. B., Little, P., & Bouffard, S. M. (2005). More than just being there: Balancing the participation equation. New Directions for Youth Development, 2005, 15–31.CrossRef
Metadata
Title
Promoting Afterschool Quality and Positive Youth Development: Cluster Randomized Trial of the Pax Good Behavior Game
Authors
Emilie Phillips Smith
D. Wayne Osgood
Yoonkyung Oh
Linda C. Caldwell
Publication date
01-02-2018
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Prevention Science / Issue 2/2018
Print ISSN: 1389-4986
Electronic ISSN: 1573-6695
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0820-2

Other articles of this Issue 2/2018

Prevention Science 2/2018 Go to the issue

OriginalPaper

Quality Matters: Implementation Moderates Student Outcomes in the PATHS Curriculum

OriginalPaper

A Brief Smoking Cessation Advice by Youth Counselors for the Smokers in the Hong Kong Quit to Win Contest 2010: a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

OriginalPaper

Factors Associated with Teacher Delivery of a Classroom-Based Tier 2 Prevention Program

OriginalPaper

Multi-Level Cultural Intervention for the Prevention of Suicide and Alcohol Use Risk with Alaska Native Youth: a Nonrandomized Comparison of Treatment Intensity

OriginalPaper

Prevention of Anxiety and Depression in Swedish School Children: a Cluster-Randomized Effectiveness Study

OriginalPaper

Translating Prevention Research for Evidence-Based Policymaking: Results from the Research-to-Policy Collaboration Pilot