Skip to main content
Top
Published in: EcoHealth 1/2009

01-03-2009 | Original Contribution

Industrial Food Animal Production and Global Health Risks: Exploring the Ecosystems and Economics of Avian Influenza

Authors: Jessica H. Leibler, Joachim Otte, David Roland-Holst, Dirk U. Pfeiffer, Ricardo Soares Magalhaes, Jonathan Rushton, Jay P. Graham, Ellen K. Silbergeld

Published in: EcoHealth | Issue 1/2009

Login to get access

Abstract

Many emerging infectious diseases in human populations are associated with zoonotic origins. Attention has often focused on wild animal reservoirs, but most zoonotic pathogens of recent concern to human health either originate in, or are transferred to, human populations from domesticated animals raised for human consumption. Thus, the ecological context of emerging infectious disease comprises two overlapping ecosystems: the natural habitats and populations of wild animals, and the anthropogenically controlled habitats and populations of domesticated species. Intensive food animal production systems and their associated value chains dominate in developed countries and are increasingly important in developing countries. These systems are characterized by large numbers of animals being raised in confinement with high throughput and rapid turnover. Although not typically recognized as such, industrial food animal production generates unique ecosystems—environments that may facilitate the evolution of zoonotic pathogens and their transmission to human populations. It is often assumed that confined food animal production reduces risks of emerging zoonotic diseases. This article provides evidence suggesting that these industrial systems may increase animal and public health risks unless there is recognition of the specific biosecurity and biocontainment challenges of the industrial model. Moreover, the economic drivers and constraints faced by the industry and its participants must be fully understood in order to inform preventative policy. In order to more effectively reduce zoonotic disease risk from industrial food animal production, private incentives for the implementation of biosecurity must align with public health interests.
Literature
go back to reference Alexander DJ (2006) Avian influenza viruses and human health. Developmental Biology 124:77–84. Alexander DJ (2006) Avian influenza viruses and human health. Developmental Biology 124:77–84.
go back to reference Belser JA, Blixt O, Chen LM, Pappas C, Maines TR, Van Hoeven N, et al. (2008) Contemporary North American influenza H7 viruses possess human receptor specificity: implications for virus transmissibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:7558–7563 Belser JA, Blixt O, Chen LM, Pappas C, Maines TR, Van Hoeven N, et al. (2008) Contemporary North American influenza H7 viruses possess human receptor specificity: implications for virus transmissibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:7558–7563
go back to reference Bridges CB, Lim W, Hu-Primmer J, Sims L, Fukuda K, Mak KH, et al. (2002) Risk of influenza A (H5N1) infection among poultry workers, Hong-Kong, 1997–1998. Journal of Infectious Diseases 185:1005–1010.CrossRef Bridges CB, Lim W, Hu-Primmer J, Sims L, Fukuda K, Mak KH, et al. (2002) Risk of influenza A (H5N1) infection among poultry workers, Hong-Kong, 1997–1998. Journal of Infectious Diseases 185:1005–1010.CrossRef
go back to reference Bull SA, Allen VM, Domingue G, Jørgensen F, Frost JA, Ure R, et al. (2006) Sources of Campylobacter spp. colonizing housed broiler flocks during rearing. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72:645–652.CrossRef Bull SA, Allen VM, Domingue G, Jørgensen F, Frost JA, Ure R, et al. (2006) Sources of Campylobacter spp. colonizing housed broiler flocks during rearing. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72:645–652.CrossRef
go back to reference Burrell A (2002) Animal disease epidemics: implications for production, policy and trade. Outlook on Agriculture 31:151–160. Burrell A (2002) Animal disease epidemics: implications for production, policy and trade. Outlook on Agriculture 31:151–160.
go back to reference Capua I, Mutinelli F, Pozza MD, Donatelli I, Puzelli S, Cancellotti FM (2002) The 1999–2000 avian influenza (H7N1) epidemic in Italy: veterinary and human health implications. Acta Tropica 83:7–11.CrossRef Capua I, Mutinelli F, Pozza MD, Donatelli I, Puzelli S, Cancellotti FM (2002) The 1999–2000 avian influenza (H7N1) epidemic in Italy: veterinary and human health implications. Acta Tropica 83:7–11.CrossRef
go back to reference Capua I, Alexander DJ (2004) Human health implications of avian influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 23:1–6.CrossRef Capua I, Alexander DJ (2004) Human health implications of avian influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 23:1–6.CrossRef
go back to reference Capua I, Alexander DJ (2006) The challenge of avian influenza to the veterinary community. Avian Pathology 35:189–205.CrossRef Capua I, Alexander DJ (2006) The challenge of avian influenza to the veterinary community. Avian Pathology 35:189–205.CrossRef
go back to reference Capua I, Marangon S (2007) The use of vaccination to combat multiple introductions of notifiable avian influenza viruses of the H5 and H7 subtypes between 2000 and 2006 in Italy. Vaccine 25:4987–4995.CrossRef Capua I, Marangon S (2007) The use of vaccination to combat multiple introductions of notifiable avian influenza viruses of the H5 and H7 subtypes between 2000 and 2006 in Italy. Vaccine 25:4987–4995.CrossRef
go back to reference Dargatz DA, Garry FB, Traub-Dargatz JL (2002) An introduction to biosecurity of cattle operations. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 18:1–5.CrossRef Dargatz DA, Garry FB, Traub-Dargatz JL (2002) An introduction to biosecurity of cattle operations. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 18:1–5.CrossRef
go back to reference Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife—threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449.CrossRef Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife—threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449.CrossRef
go back to reference Field HE, Mackenzie JS, Daszak P (2007) Henipaviruses: emerging paramyxoviruses associated with fruit bats. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 315:133–159.CrossRef Field HE, Mackenzie JS, Daszak P (2007) Henipaviruses: emerging paramyxoviruses associated with fruit bats. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 315:133–159.CrossRef
go back to reference Gaze W, O’Neill C, Wellington E, Hawkey P (2008) Antibiotic resistance in the environment, with particular reference to MRSA. Advances in Applied Microbiology 63:249–280.CrossRef Gaze W, O’Neill C, Wellington E, Hawkey P (2008) Antibiotic resistance in the environment, with particular reference to MRSA. Advances in Applied Microbiology 63:249–280.CrossRef
go back to reference Gerba CP, Smith JE Jr (2005) Sources of pathogenic microorganisms and their fate during land application of wastes. Journal of Environmental Quality 34:42–48. Gerba CP, Smith JE Jr (2005) Sources of pathogenic microorganisms and their fate during land application of wastes. Journal of Environmental Quality 34:42–48.
go back to reference Gilchrist MJ, Greko C, Wallinga DB, Beran GW, Riley DG, Thorne PS (2007) The potential role of concentrated animal feeding operations in infectious disease epidemics and antibiotic resistance. Environmental and Health Perspectives 115:313–316. Gilchrist MJ, Greko C, Wallinga DB, Beran GW, Riley DG, Thorne PS (2007) The potential role of concentrated animal feeding operations in infectious disease epidemics and antibiotic resistance. Environmental and Health Perspectives 115:313–316.
go back to reference Graham JP, Leibler JH, Price LB, Otte JM, Pfeiffer DU, Tiensin T, et al. (2008) The animal:human interface and infectious disease in industrial food animal production: rethinking biosecurity and biocontainment. Public Health Reports 123:282–299. Graham JP, Leibler JH, Price LB, Otte JM, Pfeiffer DU, Tiensin T, et al. (2008) The animal:human interface and infectious disease in industrial food animal production: rethinking biosecurity and biocontainment. Public Health Reports 123:282–299.
go back to reference Gramig BM, Barnett BJ, Skees JR, Black JR (2006) Incentive compatibility in risk management of contagious livestock disease. In: The Economics of Livestock Disease Insurance: Concepts, Issues and International Case Studies, Koontz SR, Hoag DL, Thilmany DD, Green JW, Grannis JL (editors), Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing, pp 39–52. Gramig BM, Barnett BJ, Skees JR, Black JR (2006) Incentive compatibility in risk management of contagious livestock disease. In: The Economics of Livestock Disease Insurance: Concepts, Issues and International Case Studies, Koontz SR, Hoag DL, Thilmany DD, Green JW, Grannis JL (editors), Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing, pp 39–52.
go back to reference Gray GC, McCarthy T, Capuano AW, Setterquist SF, Olsen CW, Alavanja MC (2007) Swine workers and swine influenza virus infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13:1871–1878.CrossRef Gray GC, McCarthy T, Capuano AW, Setterquist SF, Olsen CW, Alavanja MC (2007) Swine workers and swine influenza virus infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13:1871–1878.CrossRef
go back to reference Hald B, Skovgård H, Bang DD, Pedersen K, Dybdahl J, Jespersen JB, et al. (2004) Flies and Campylobacter infection in broiler flocks. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:1490–1492. Hald B, Skovgård H, Bang DD, Pedersen K, Dybdahl J, Jespersen JB, et al. (2004) Flies and Campylobacter infection in broiler flocks. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:1490–1492.
go back to reference Jones TA, Donnelly CA, Stamp Dawkins M (2005) Environmental and management factors affecting the welfare of chickens on commercial farms in the United Kingdom and Denmark stocked at five densities. Poultry Science 84:1155–1165. Jones TA, Donnelly CA, Stamp Dawkins M (2005) Environmental and management factors affecting the welfare of chickens on commercial farms in the United Kingdom and Denmark stocked at five densities. Poultry Science 84:1155–1165.
go back to reference Kida H, Ito T, Yasuda J, Shimizu Y, Itakura C, Shortridge KF, et al. (1994) Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs. Journal of General Virology 75:2183–2188.CrossRef Kida H, Ito T, Yasuda J, Shimizu Y, Itakura C, Shortridge KF, et al. (1994) Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs. Journal of General Virology 75:2183–2188.CrossRef
go back to reference Kilpatrick AM, Chmura AA, Gibbons DW, Fleischer RC, Marra PP, Daszak P (2006) Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103:19368–19373 Kilpatrick AM, Chmura AA, Gibbons DW, Fleischer RC, Marra PP, Daszak P (2006) Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103:19368–19373
go back to reference Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M, Natrop G, van der Nat H, Vennema H, et al. (2004) Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Lancet 363:587–593.CrossRef Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M, Natrop G, van der Nat H, Vennema H, et al. (2004) Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Lancet 363:587–593.CrossRef
go back to reference Lee CW, Senne DA, Suarez DL (2004) Effect of vaccine use in the evolution of Mexican lineage H5N2 avian influenza virus. Journal of Virology 78:8372–8981.CrossRef Lee CW, Senne DA, Suarez DL (2004) Effect of vaccine use in the evolution of Mexican lineage H5N2 avian influenza virus. Journal of Virology 78:8372–8981.CrossRef
go back to reference Lee MD, Sanchez S, Zimmer M, Idris U, Berrang ME, McDermott PF (2002) Class 1 integron-associated tobramycin-gentamicin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from the broiler chicken house environment. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 46:3660–3664.CrossRef Lee MD, Sanchez S, Zimmer M, Idris U, Berrang ME, McDermott PF (2002) Class 1 integron-associated tobramycin-gentamicin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from the broiler chicken house environment. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 46:3660–3664.CrossRef
go back to reference Little E, Edwards P (2003) Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming Systems, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Little E, Edwards P (2003) Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming Systems, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
go back to reference Lucas C (2007) Bird flu’s link with the crazy trade in poultry. Financial Times, February 26, 2007 Lucas C (2007) Bird flu’s link with the crazy trade in poultry. Financial Times, February 26, 2007
go back to reference Ma W, Vincent AL, Gramer MR, Brockwell CB, Lager KM, Janke BH, et al. (2007) Identification of H2N3 influenza A viruses from swine in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:20949–20954 Ma W, Vincent AL, Gramer MR, Brockwell CB, Lager KM, Janke BH, et al. (2007) Identification of H2N3 influenza A viruses from swine in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:20949–20954
go back to reference Maldonado J, Van Reeth K, Riera P, Sitjà M, Saubi N, Espuña E, et al. (2006) Evidence of the concurrent circulation of H1N2, H1N1 and H3N2 influenza A viruses in densely populated pig areas in Spain. Veterinary Journal 172:377–381CrossRef Maldonado J, Van Reeth K, Riera P, Sitjà M, Saubi N, Espuña E, et al. (2006) Evidence of the concurrent circulation of H1N2, H1N1 and H3N2 influenza A viruses in densely populated pig areas in Spain. Veterinary Journal 172:377–381CrossRef
go back to reference McMichael AJ, Powles JW, Butler CD, Uauy R (2007) Food, livestock production, energy, climate change and health. Lancet 370:1253–1263.CrossRef McMichael AJ, Powles JW, Butler CD, Uauy R (2007) Food, livestock production, energy, climate change and health. Lancet 370:1253–1263.CrossRef
go back to reference Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) (2001) The Abattoir and Meat Processing Industry in Great Britain. Supplement to the 1999 Edition. Available: 2001 Meat and Livestock Commission, PO Box 44, Winterhill House, Snowdon Drive, Milton Keynes MK6 1AX, UK Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) (2001) The Abattoir and Meat Processing Industry in Great Britain. Supplement to the 1999 Edition. Available: 2001 Meat and Livestock Commission, PO Box 44, Winterhill House, Snowdon Drive, Milton Keynes MK6 1AX, UK
go back to reference Myers KP, Olsen CW, Setterquist SF, Capuano AW, Donham KJ, Thacker EL, et al. (2006) Are swine workers in the United States at increased risk of infection with zoonotic influenza virus? Clinical Infectious Diseases 42:14–20.CrossRef Myers KP, Olsen CW, Setterquist SF, Capuano AW, Donham KJ, Thacker EL, et al. (2006) Are swine workers in the United States at increased risk of infection with zoonotic influenza virus? Clinical Infectious Diseases 42:14–20.CrossRef
go back to reference Nachman KE, Graham JP, Price LB, Silbergeld EK (2005) Arsenic: a roadblock to potential animal waste management solutions. Environmental and Health Perspectives 113:1123–1124. Nachman KE, Graham JP, Price LB, Silbergeld EK (2005) Arsenic: a roadblock to potential animal waste management solutions. Environmental and Health Perspectives 113:1123–1124.
go back to reference Okamatsu M, Saito T, Mase M, Tsukamoto K, Yamaguchi S (2007) Characterization of H5N2 influenza A viruses isolated from chickens in Japan. Avian Diseases 51(1 Suppl):474–475 Okamatsu M, Saito T, Mase M, Tsukamoto K, Yamaguchi S (2007) Characterization of H5N2 influenza A viruses isolated from chickens in Japan. Avian Diseases 51(1 Suppl):474–475
go back to reference Otte J, Pfeiffer DU, Tiensen T, Price LB, Silbergeld EK (2007) HPAI risk, biosecurity and smallholder adversity. In: Proceedings of the WPSA Asian Pacific Federation Working Group on Small-Scale Family Poultry Farming Symposium, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 1–8 Otte J, Pfeiffer DU, Tiensen T, Price LB, Silbergeld EK (2007) HPAI risk, biosecurity and smallholder adversity. In: Proceedings of the WPSA Asian Pacific Federation Working Group on Small-Scale Family Poultry Farming Symposium, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 1–8
go back to reference Peiris JSM, Guan Y, Markwell D, Ghose P, Webster RG, Shortridge KF (2001) Co-circulation of avian H9N2 and contemporary ‘human’ H3N2 influenza viruses in pigs in Southeastern China: potential for genetic reassortment? Journal of Virology 75:9679–9686.CrossRef Peiris JSM, Guan Y, Markwell D, Ghose P, Webster RG, Shortridge KF (2001) Co-circulation of avian H9N2 and contemporary ‘human’ H3N2 influenza viruses in pigs in Southeastern China: potential for genetic reassortment? Journal of Virology 75:9679–9686.CrossRef
go back to reference Pfeiffer DU, Minh PQ, Martin V, Epprecht M, Otte MJ (2007) An analysis of the spatial and temporal patterns of highly pathogenic avian influenza occurrence in Vietnam using national surveillance data. Veterinary Journal 174:302–309.CrossRef Pfeiffer DU, Minh PQ, Martin V, Epprecht M, Otte MJ (2007) An analysis of the spatial and temporal patterns of highly pathogenic avian influenza occurrence in Vietnam using national surveillance data. Veterinary Journal 174:302–309.CrossRef
go back to reference Pollan M (2006) The Omnivore’s Dilemma, New York: The Penguin Press. Pollan M (2006) The Omnivore’s Dilemma, New York: The Penguin Press.
go back to reference Popkin BM, Du S (2003) Dynamics of the nutrition transition towards the animal foods sector in China and its implications: a worried perspective. Journal of Nutrition 133(11 Suppl 2):3898S–3906S. Popkin BM, Du S (2003) Dynamics of the nutrition transition towards the animal foods sector in China and its implications: a worried perspective. Journal of Nutrition 133(11 Suppl 2):3898S–3906S.
go back to reference Power C (2005) The Source and Means of Spread of the Avian Influenza Virus in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia during an Outbreak in the Winter of 2004—An Interim Report, February 2005. Available: http://www.inspection.gc.ca Power C (2005) The Source and Means of Spread of the Avian Influenza Virus in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia during an Outbreak in the Winter of 2004—An Interim Report, February 2005. Available: http://​www.​inspection.​gc.​ca
go back to reference Price LB, Roess A, Graham JP, Baqar S, Vailes R, Sheikh KA, et al. (2007) Neurologic symptoms and neuropathologic antibodies in poultry workers exposed to Campylobacter jejuni. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 49:748–755.CrossRef Price LB, Roess A, Graham JP, Baqar S, Vailes R, Sheikh KA, et al. (2007) Neurologic symptoms and neuropathologic antibodies in poultry workers exposed to Campylobacter jejuni. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 49:748–755.CrossRef
go back to reference Pulliam JRC (2008) Viral host jumps: moving towards a predictive framework. EcoHealth 5:80–91.CrossRef Pulliam JRC (2008) Viral host jumps: moving towards a predictive framework. EcoHealth 5:80–91.CrossRef
go back to reference Puzelli S, Di Trani L, Fabiani C, Campitelli L, De Marco MA, Capua I, et al. (2005) Serological analysis of serum samples from humans exposed to avian H7 influenza viruses in Italy between 1999 and 2003. Journal of Infectious Diseases 192:1318–1322.CrossRef Puzelli S, Di Trani L, Fabiani C, Campitelli L, De Marco MA, Capua I, et al. (2005) Serological analysis of serum samples from humans exposed to avian H7 influenza viruses in Italy between 1999 and 2003. Journal of Infectious Diseases 192:1318–1322.CrossRef
go back to reference Radostits OM (2001) Control of infectious diseases of food-producing animals. In: Herd Health: Food Animal Production Medicine, 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders Radostits OM (2001) Control of infectious diseases of food-producing animals. In: Herd Health: Food Animal Production Medicine, 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders
go back to reference Rule AM, Evans SL, Silbergeld EK (2008) Food animal transport: a potential source of community exposures to health hazards from industrial farming (CAFOs). Journal of Infection and Public Health 1:33–39.CrossRef Rule AM, Evans SL, Silbergeld EK (2008) Food animal transport: a potential source of community exposures to health hazards from industrial farming (CAFOs). Journal of Infection and Public Health 1:33–39.CrossRef
go back to reference Saenz RA, Hethcote HW, Gray GC (2006) Confined animal feeding operations as amplifiers for influenza. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 6:338–346.CrossRef Saenz RA, Hethcote HW, Gray GC (2006) Confined animal feeding operations as amplifiers for influenza. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 6:338–346.CrossRef
go back to reference Sapkota AR, Lefferts LY, McKenzie S, Walker P (2007) What do we feed to food-production animals? A review of animal feed ingredients and their potential impacts on human health. Environmental and Health Perspectives 115:663–670.CrossRef Sapkota AR, Lefferts LY, McKenzie S, Walker P (2007) What do we feed to food-production animals? A review of animal feed ingredients and their potential impacts on human health. Environmental and Health Perspectives 115:663–670.CrossRef
go back to reference Sawabe K, Hoshino K, Isawa H, Sasaki T, Hayashi T, Tsuda Y, et al. (2006) Detection and isolation of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A viruses from blow flies collected in the vicinity of an infected poultry farm in Kyoto, Japan, 2004. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75:327–332. Sawabe K, Hoshino K, Isawa H, Sasaki T, Hayashi T, Tsuda Y, et al. (2006) Detection and isolation of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A viruses from blow flies collected in the vicinity of an infected poultry farm in Kyoto, Japan, 2004. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75:327–332.
go back to reference Schulz U, et al. (1991) Evolution of pig influenza viruses. Virology 183:61–73.CrossRef Schulz U, et al. (1991) Evolution of pig influenza viruses. Virology 183:61–73.CrossRef
go back to reference Shieh HK, Chang PC, Chen TH, Li KP, Chan CH (2008) Surveillance of avian and swine influenza in the swine population in Taiwan, 2004. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 41:231–242. Shieh HK, Chang PC, Chen TH, Li KP, Chan CH (2008) Surveillance of avian and swine influenza in the swine population in Taiwan, 2004. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 41:231–242.
go back to reference Silbergeld EK, Graham J, Price LB (2008) Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health. Annual Review of Public Health 29:151–169.CrossRef Silbergeld EK, Graham J, Price LB (2008) Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health. Annual Review of Public Health 29:151–169.CrossRef
go back to reference Stegeman A, Bouma A, Elbers AR, de Jong MC, Nodelijk G, de Klerk F, et al. (2004) Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) epidemic in the Netherlands in 2003: course of the epidemic and effectiveness of control measures. Journal of Infectious Diseases 190:2088–2094.CrossRef Stegeman A, Bouma A, Elbers AR, de Jong MC, Nodelijk G, de Klerk F, et al. (2004) Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) epidemic in the Netherlands in 2003: course of the epidemic and effectiveness of control measures. Journal of Infectious Diseases 190:2088–2094.CrossRef
go back to reference Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME (2001) Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356:983–989.CrossRef Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME (2001) Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356:983–989.CrossRef
go back to reference Vana G, Westover KM (2008) Origin of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus: a comparative genomic analysis. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47:1100–1110.CrossRef Vana G, Westover KM (2008) Origin of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus: a comparative genomic analysis. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47:1100–1110.CrossRef
go back to reference Webby RJ, Webster RG (2001) Emergence of influenza A viruses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356:1817–1828.CrossRef Webby RJ, Webster RG (2001) Emergence of influenza A viruses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356:1817–1828.CrossRef
go back to reference Woolhouse MEJ (2002) Population biology of emerging and re-emerging pathogens. Trends in Microbiology 10:S3–S7.CrossRef Woolhouse MEJ (2002) Population biology of emerging and re-emerging pathogens. Trends in Microbiology 10:S3–S7.CrossRef
go back to reference World Bank (2005) Managing the Livestock Revolution: Policy and Technology to Address the Negative Impacts of a Fast-Growing Sector, June 2005; Report No. 32725-GLB, Washington, DC: The World Bank. World Bank (2005) Managing the Livestock Revolution: Policy and Technology to Address the Negative Impacts of a Fast-Growing Sector, June 2005; Report No. 32725-GLB, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
go back to reference Zheng Y, Ge S, Zhang J, Guo Q, Ng MH, Wang F, et al. (2006) Swine as a principal reservoir of hepatitis E virus that infects humans in eastern China. Journal of Infectious Diseases 193:1643–1649.CrossRef Zheng Y, Ge S, Zhang J, Guo Q, Ng MH, Wang F, et al. (2006) Swine as a principal reservoir of hepatitis E virus that infects humans in eastern China. Journal of Infectious Diseases 193:1643–1649.CrossRef
go back to reference Zhou NN, Senne DA, Landgraf JS, Swenson SL, Erickson G, Rossow K, et al. (1999) Genetic reassortment of avian, swine, and human influenza A viruses in American pigs. Journal of Virology 73:8851–8856. Zhou NN, Senne DA, Landgraf JS, Swenson SL, Erickson G, Rossow K, et al. (1999) Genetic reassortment of avian, swine, and human influenza A viruses in American pigs. Journal of Virology 73:8851–8856.
Metadata
Title
Industrial Food Animal Production and Global Health Risks: Exploring the Ecosystems and Economics of Avian Influenza
Authors
Jessica H. Leibler
Joachim Otte
David Roland-Holst
Dirk U. Pfeiffer
Ricardo Soares Magalhaes
Jonathan Rushton
Jay P. Graham
Ellen K. Silbergeld
Publication date
01-03-2009
Publisher
Springer-Verlag
Published in
EcoHealth / Issue 1/2009
Print ISSN: 1612-9202
Electronic ISSN: 1612-9210
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-009-0226-0

Other articles of this Issue 1/2009

EcoHealth 1/2009 Go to the issue