Skip to main content
Top
Published in: EcoHealth 2/2007

01-06-2007

Spread of Chytridiomycosis Has Caused the Rapid Global Decline and Extinction of Frogs

Authors: Lee Francis Skerratt, Lee Berger, Richard Speare, Scott Cashins, Keith Raymond McDonald, Andrea Dawn Phillott, Harry Bryan Hines, Nicole Kenyon

Published in: EcoHealth | Issue 2/2007

Login to get access

Abstract

The global emergence and spread of the pathogenic, virulent, and highly transmissible fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, resulting in the disease chytridiomycosis, has caused the decline or extinction of up to about 200 species of frogs. Key postulates for this theory have been completely or partially fulfilled. In the absence of supportive evidence for alternative theories despite decades of research, it is important for the scientific community and conservation agencies to recognize and manage the threat of chytridiomycosis to remaining species of frogs, especially those that are naive to the pathogen. The impact of chytridiomycosis on frogs is the most spectacular loss of vertebrate biodiversity due to disease in recorded history.
Literature
go back to reference Alexander MA, Eischeid JK (2001) Climate variability in regions of amphibian declines. Conservation Biology 15:930–942CrossRef Alexander MA, Eischeid JK (2001) Climate variability in regions of amphibian declines. Conservation Biology 15:930–942CrossRef
go back to reference Anderson RM, May RM (1979) Population biology of infectious diseases: part 1. Nature 280:361–367CrossRef Anderson RM, May RM (1979) Population biology of infectious diseases: part 1. Nature 280:361–367CrossRef
go back to reference Ardipradja K (2001) A Study of Resistance towards the Emerging Pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Four Species of Australian Frogs. Honours thesis, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: University of Melbourne Ardipradja K (2001) A Study of Resistance towards the Emerging Pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Four Species of Australian Frogs. Honours thesis, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: University of Melbourne
go back to reference Bell BD, Carver S, Mitchell NJ, Pledger S (2004) The recent decline of a New Zealand endemic: how and why did populations of Archey’s frog Leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996–2001? Biological Conservation 120:189–199CrossRef Bell BD, Carver S, Mitchell NJ, Pledger S (2004) The recent decline of a New Zealand endemic: how and why did populations of Archey’s frog Leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996–2001? Biological Conservation 120:189–199CrossRef
go back to reference Berger L, Speare R, Daszak P, Green DE, Cunningham AA, Goggin CL, et al. (1998) Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95:9031–9036CrossRef Berger L, Speare R, Daszak P, Green DE, Cunningham AA, Goggin CL, et al. (1998) Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95:9031–9036CrossRef
go back to reference Berger L, Speare R, Hyatt AD (1999) Chytrid fungi and amphibian declines: overview, implications and future directions. In: Campbell A (editor), Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs Canberra, Australia: Environment Australia, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, pp 23–33 Berger L, Speare R, Hyatt AD (1999) Chytrid fungi and amphibian declines: overview, implications and future directions. In: Campbell A (editor), Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs Canberra, Australia: Environment Australia, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, pp 23–33
go back to reference Berger L, et al. (2004) Effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis. Australian Veterinary Journal 82:31–36 Berger L, et al. (2004) Effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis. Australian Veterinary Journal 82:31–36
go back to reference Berger L, Longcore JE, Speare R, Hyatt AD, Skerratt LF (in press) Fungal diseases in amphibians. In: Amphibian Biology Series, Vol. 8, Decline and Conservation of Amphibians, Heatwole H (editor), Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons Berger L, Longcore JE, Speare R, Hyatt AD, Skerratt LF (in press) Fungal diseases in amphibians. In: Amphibian Biology Series, Vol. 8, Decline and Conservation of Amphibians, Heatwole H (editor), Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons
go back to reference Bonaccorso E, Guayasamin JM, Méndez D, Speare R (2003) Chytridiomycosis in a Venezuelan amphibian (Bufonidae: Atelopus cruciger). Herpetological Review 34:331 Bonaccorso E, Guayasamin JM, Méndez D, Speare R (2003) Chytridiomycosis in a Venezuelan amphibian (Bufonidae: Atelopus cruciger). Herpetological Review 34:331
go back to reference Bosch J, Martínez-Solano I, García-París M (2001) Evidence of a chytrid fungus infection involved in the decline of the common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) in protected areas of central Spain. Biological Conservation 97:331–337CrossRef Bosch J, Martínez-Solano I, García-París M (2001) Evidence of a chytrid fungus infection involved in the decline of the common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) in protected areas of central Spain. Biological Conservation 97:331–337CrossRef
go back to reference Carey C, Bruzgul JE, Livo LJ, Walling MI, Kuehl KA, Dixon BF, et al. (2006) Experimental exposures of boreal toads (Bufo boreas) to a pathogenic chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). EcoHealth 3:5–21CrossRef Carey C, Bruzgul JE, Livo LJ, Walling MI, Kuehl KA, Dixon BF, et al. (2006) Experimental exposures of boreal toads (Bufo boreas) to a pathogenic chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). EcoHealth 3:5–21CrossRef
go back to reference Cunningham AA, Daszak P, Hyatt A (2001) Amphibia. In: Woodford MH (editor) Quarantine and Health Screening Protocols for Wildlife Prior to Translocation and Release into the Wild, Paris: Office International des Epizooties (OIE), Care for the Wild International, IUCN—World Conservation Union and the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, pp 74–79 Cunningham AA, Daszak P, Hyatt A (2001) Amphibia. In: Woodford MH (editor) Quarantine and Health Screening Protocols for Wildlife Prior to Translocation and Release into the Wild, Paris: Office International des Epizooties (OIE), Care for the Wild International, IUCN—World Conservation Union and the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, pp 74–79
go back to reference Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449CrossRef Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449CrossRef
go back to reference Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2003) Infectious disease and amphibian population declines. Diversity and Distributions 9:141–150CrossRef Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2003) Infectious disease and amphibian population declines. Diversity and Distributions 9:141–150CrossRef
go back to reference Daszak P, Strieby A, Cunningham AA, Longcore JE, Brown CC, Porter D (2004) Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians. Herpetological Journal 14:201–207 Daszak P, Strieby A, Cunningham AA, Longcore JE, Brown CC, Porter D (2004) Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians. Herpetological Journal 14:201–207
go back to reference Dohoo I, Martin W, Stryhn H (2003) Veterinary Epidemiological Research, Prince Edward Island, Canada: AVC Dohoo I, Martin W, Stryhn H (2003) Veterinary Epidemiological Research, Prince Edward Island, Canada: AVC
go back to reference Evans AS (1976) Causation and disease. The Henle-Koch postulates revisited. Yale Journal of Biological Medicine 49:175–195 Evans AS (1976) Causation and disease. The Henle-Koch postulates revisited. Yale Journal of Biological Medicine 49:175–195
go back to reference Eyler JM (2001) The changing assessments of John Snow’s and William Farr’s cholera studies. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin 46:225–232CrossRef Eyler JM (2001) The changing assessments of John Snow’s and William Farr’s cholera studies. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin 46:225–232CrossRef
go back to reference Fenner F, Ratcliffe FN (1965) Myxomatosis, New York: Cambridge University Press Fenner F, Ratcliffe FN (1965) Myxomatosis, New York: Cambridge University Press
go back to reference Garner TWJ, Walker S, Bosch J, Hyatt AD, Cunningham AA, Fisher MC (2005) Chytrid fungus in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11:1639–1641 Garner TWJ, Walker S, Bosch J, Hyatt AD, Cunningham AA, Fisher MC (2005) Chytrid fungus in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11:1639–1641
go back to reference Hanselmann R, Rodríguez A, Lampo M, Fajardo-Ramos L, Aguirre AA, Kilpatrick AM, et al. (2004) Presence of an emerging pathogen of amphibians in introduced bullfrogs Rana catesbeiana in Venezuela. Biological Conservation 120:115–119CrossRef Hanselmann R, Rodríguez A, Lampo M, Fajardo-Ramos L, Aguirre AA, Kilpatrick AM, et al. (2004) Presence of an emerging pathogen of amphibians in introduced bullfrogs Rana catesbeiana in Venezuela. Biological Conservation 120:115–119CrossRef
go back to reference Hudson PJ, Rizzoli A, Grenfell BT, Heesterbeck H, Dobson AP (2002) The Ecology of Wildlife Diseases, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press Hudson PJ, Rizzoli A, Grenfell BT, Heesterbeck H, Dobson AP (2002) The Ecology of Wildlife Diseases, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
go back to reference Johnson M, Speare R (2003) Survival of Batrachochytrium in water: quarantine and disease control implications. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:922 Johnson M, Speare R (2003) Survival of Batrachochytrium in water: quarantine and disease control implications. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:922
go back to reference La Marca E, Lips KR, Lotters S, Puschendorf R, Ibanez R, Rueda-Almonacid JV, et al. (2005) Catastrophic population declines and extinctions in neotropical harlequin frogs (Bufonidae: Atelopus). Biotropica 37:190–201CrossRef La Marca E, Lips KR, Lotters S, Puschendorf R, Ibanez R, Rueda-Almonacid JV, et al. (2005) Catastrophic population declines and extinctions in neotropical harlequin frogs (Bufonidae: Atelopus). Biotropica 37:190–201CrossRef
go back to reference Lamirande EW, Nichols DK (2002) Effects of host age on susceptibility to cutaneous chytridiomycosis in blue-and-yellow poison dart frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius). In: St. Paul MN, McKinnel RG, Carlson DL (editors) Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on the Pathology of Reptiles and Amphibians, pp 3–13 Lamirande EW, Nichols DK (2002) Effects of host age on susceptibility to cutaneous chytridiomycosis in blue-and-yellow poison dart frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius). In: St. Paul MN, McKinnel RG, Carlson DL (editors) Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on the Pathology of Reptiles and Amphibians, pp 3–13
go back to reference Laurance WF, McDonald KR, Speare R (1996) Epidemic disease and the catastrophic decline of Australian rain forest frogs. Conservation Biology 10:406–413CrossRef Laurance WF, McDonald KR, Speare R (1996) Epidemic disease and the catastrophic decline of Australian rain forest frogs. Conservation Biology 10:406–413CrossRef
go back to reference Lips KR (1998) Decline of a tropical montane fauna. Conservation Biology 12:106–117CrossRef Lips KR (1998) Decline of a tropical montane fauna. Conservation Biology 12:106–117CrossRef
go back to reference Lips KR (1999) Mass mortality and population declines of anurans at an upland site in western Panama. Conservation Biology 13:117CrossRef Lips KR (1999) Mass mortality and population declines of anurans at an upland site in western Panama. Conservation Biology 13:117CrossRef
go back to reference Lips KR, Brem F, Brenes R, Reeve JD, Alford RA, Voyles J, et al. (2006) Emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a neotropical amphibian community. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103:3165–3170CrossRef Lips KR, Brem F, Brenes R, Reeve JD, Alford RA, Voyles J, et al. (2006) Emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a neotropical amphibian community. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103:3165–3170CrossRef
go back to reference Longcore JE, Pessier AP, Nichols DK (1999) Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis gen. et sp. nov. a chytrid pathogenic to amphibians. Mycologia 91:219–227CrossRef Longcore JE, Pessier AP, Nichols DK (1999) Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis gen. et sp. nov. a chytrid pathogenic to amphibians. Mycologia 91:219–227CrossRef
go back to reference McCallum H (2005) Inconclusiveness of chytridiomycosis as the agent in widespread frog declines. Conservation Biology 19:1421–1430CrossRef McCallum H (2005) Inconclusiveness of chytridiomycosis as the agent in widespread frog declines. Conservation Biology 19:1421–1430CrossRef
go back to reference McCallum H, Dobson A (1995) Detecting diseases and parasite threats to endangered species and ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10:190–194CrossRef McCallum H, Dobson A (1995) Detecting diseases and parasite threats to endangered species and ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10:190–194CrossRef
go back to reference McDonald KR, Alford RA (1999) A review of declining frogs in northern Queensland. In: Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs, Canberra, Campbell A (editor), Australia: Environment Australia, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, pp 14–22 McDonald KR, Alford RA (1999) A review of declining frogs in northern Queensland. In: Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs, Canberra, Campbell A (editor), Australia: Environment Australia, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, pp 14–22
go back to reference McDonald KR, Méndez D, Müller R, Freeman AB, Speare R (2005) Decline in the prevalence of chytridiomycosis in frog populations in North Queensland, Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology 11:114–120 McDonald KR, Méndez D, Müller R, Freeman AB, Speare R (2005) Decline in the prevalence of chytridiomycosis in frog populations in North Queensland, Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology 11:114–120
go back to reference Mendelson JR, Lips KR, Gagliardo RW, Rabb GB, Collins JP, Diffendorfer JE, et al. (2006) Confronting amphibian declines and extinctions. Science 313:48CrossRef Mendelson JR, Lips KR, Gagliardo RW, Rabb GB, Collins JP, Diffendorfer JE, et al. (2006) Confronting amphibian declines and extinctions. Science 313:48CrossRef
go back to reference Morehouse EA, James TY, Ganley ARD, Vilgaly R, Berger L, Murphy PJ, et al. (2003) Multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone. Molecular Ecology 12:395–403CrossRef Morehouse EA, James TY, Ganley ARD, Vilgaly R, Berger L, Murphy PJ, et al. (2003) Multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone. Molecular Ecology 12:395–403CrossRef
go back to reference Morse SS (1995) Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 1:7–15CrossRef Morse SS (1995) Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 1:7–15CrossRef
go back to reference Muths E, Corn PS, Pessier AP, Green DE (2003) Evidence for disease related amphibian decline in Colorado. Biological Conservation 110:357–365CrossRef Muths E, Corn PS, Pessier AP, Green DE (2003) Evidence for disease related amphibian decline in Colorado. Biological Conservation 110:357–365CrossRef
go back to reference OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission (2003) June Report of the Meeting of the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission (2003) June Report of the Meeting of the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties
go back to reference OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission (2006) March Report of the Meeting of the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission (2006) March Report of the Meeting of the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties
go back to reference OIE Fish Diseases Commission (2002) June Report of the Meeting of the OIE Fish Diseases Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties OIE Fish Diseases Commission (2002) June Report of the Meeting of the OIE Fish Diseases Commission, Paris: Office International des Epizooties
go back to reference OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases (2001–2005) Report of the Meeting of the OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases, Paris: Office International des Epizooties OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases (2001–2005) Report of the Meeting of the OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases, Paris: Office International des Epizooties
go back to reference Ouellet M, Mikaelian I, Pauli BD, Rodrigues J, Green DM (2005) Historical evidence of widespread chytrid infection in North American amphibian populations. Conservation Biology 19:1431–1440CrossRef Ouellet M, Mikaelian I, Pauli BD, Rodrigues J, Green DM (2005) Historical evidence of widespread chytrid infection in North American amphibian populations. Conservation Biology 19:1431–1440CrossRef
go back to reference Pounds AJ, Bustamante MR, Coloma LA, Consuegra JA, Fogden MPL, Foster PN, et al. (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 439:161–167CrossRef Pounds AJ, Bustamante MR, Coloma LA, Consuegra JA, Fogden MPL, Foster PN, et al. (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 439:161–167CrossRef
go back to reference Puschendorf R (2003) Atelopus varius (harlequin frog) fungal infection. Herpetological Review 34:20 Puschendorf R (2003) Atelopus varius (harlequin frog) fungal infection. Herpetological Review 34:20
go back to reference Rachowicz LJ, Hero JM, Alford RA, Taylor JW, Morgan JAT, Vredenburg VT, et al. (2005) The novel and endemic pathogen hypotheses: competing explanations for the origin of emerging infectious diseases of wildlife. Conservation Biology 19:1441–1448CrossRef Rachowicz LJ, Hero JM, Alford RA, Taylor JW, Morgan JAT, Vredenburg VT, et al. (2005) The novel and endemic pathogen hypotheses: competing explanations for the origin of emerging infectious diseases of wildlife. Conservation Biology 19:1441–1448CrossRef
go back to reference Retallick RWR, McCallum H, Speare R (2004) Endemic infection of the amphibian chytrid fungus in a frog community post-decline. Public Library of Science Biology 2:e351 Retallick RWR, McCallum H, Speare R (2004) Endemic infection of the amphibian chytrid fungus in a frog community post-decline. Public Library of Science Biology 2:e351
go back to reference Scherer RD, Muths E, Noon BR, Corn PS (2005) An evaluation of weather and disease as causes of decline in two populations of boreal toads. Ecological Applications 15:2150–2160CrossRef Scherer RD, Muths E, Noon BR, Corn PS (2005) An evaluation of weather and disease as causes of decline in two populations of boreal toads. Ecological Applications 15:2150–2160CrossRef
go back to reference Schloegel LM, Hero JM, Berger L, Speare R, McDonald K, Daszak P (2006) The decline of the sharp-snouted day frog (Taudactylus acutirostris): the first documented case of extinction by infection in a free-ranging wildlife species. EcoHealth 3:35–40CrossRef Schloegel LM, Hero JM, Berger L, Speare R, McDonald K, Daszak P (2006) The decline of the sharp-snouted day frog (Taudactylus acutirostris): the first documented case of extinction by infection in a free-ranging wildlife species. EcoHealth 3:35–40CrossRef
go back to reference Snow J (1890) On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, 2nd ed., London: John Churchill Snow J (1890) On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, 2nd ed., London: John Churchill
go back to reference Speare R, Steering Committee of Getting the Jump on Amphibian Disease (2001) Developing Management Strategies to Control Amphibian Diseases: Decreasing the Risks Due to Communicable Diseases, Townsville, Australia: School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University. Available: http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/chart.htm [accessed October 29, 2006] Speare R, Steering Committee of Getting the Jump on Amphibian Disease (2001) Developing Management Strategies to Control Amphibian Diseases: Decreasing the Risks Due to Communicable Diseases, Townsville, Australia: School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University. Available: http://​www.​jcu.​edu.​au/​school/​phtm/​PHTM/​frogs/​chart.​htm [accessed October 29, 2006]
go back to reference Speare R, Skerratt LF, Berger L, Hines H, Hyatt AD, Mendez D, et al. (2005) A Project that Designs and Trials a Pilot Survey to Map the Distribution of Chytridiomycosis (Caused by the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus) in Australian Frogs. Final Report for Project ID 44381 (tender 63/2003) to the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, Australia: Department of the Environment and Heritage, Commonwealth of Australia. Available: http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/distribution-survey.html [accessed October 29, 2006] Speare R, Skerratt LF, Berger L, Hines H, Hyatt AD, Mendez D, et al. (2005) A Project that Designs and Trials a Pilot Survey to Map the Distribution of Chytridiomycosis (Caused by the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus) in Australian Frogs. Final Report for Project ID 44381 (tender 63/2003) to the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, Australia: Department of the Environment and Heritage, Commonwealth of Australia. Available: http://​www.​deh.​gov.​au/​biodiversity/​invasive/​publications/​c-disease/​distribution-survey.​html [accessed October 29, 2006]
go back to reference Stuart SN, Chanson JS, Cox NA, Young BE, Rodrigues ASL, Fischman DL, et al. (2004) Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science 306:1783–1786CrossRef Stuart SN, Chanson JS, Cox NA, Young BE, Rodrigues ASL, Fischman DL, et al. (2004) Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science 306:1783–1786CrossRef
go back to reference Thrushfield M (2005) Veterinary Epidemiology, 3rd ed., Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science Thrushfield M (2005) Veterinary Epidemiology, 3rd ed., Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science
go back to reference Weldon C, du Preez LH, Muller R, Hyatt AD, Speare R (2004) Origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:2100–2105 Weldon C, du Preez LH, Muller R, Hyatt AD, Speare R (2004) Origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:2100–2105
go back to reference Wobeser GA (1994) Investigation and Management of Disease in Wild Animals, New York: Plenum Press Wobeser GA (1994) Investigation and Management of Disease in Wild Animals, New York: Plenum Press
go back to reference Woodhams DC, Alford RA (2005) Ecology of chytridiomycosis in rainforest stream frog assemblages of tropical Queensland. Conservation Biology 19:1449–1459CrossRef Woodhams DC, Alford RA (2005) Ecology of chytridiomycosis in rainforest stream frog assemblages of tropical Queensland. Conservation Biology 19:1449–1459CrossRef
go back to reference Woodhams DC, Alford RA, Marantelli G (2003) Emerging disease cured by elevated body temperature. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 55:65–66 Woodhams DC, Alford RA, Marantelli G (2003) Emerging disease cured by elevated body temperature. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 55:65–66
go back to reference Wilcox BA (2006) Amphibian decline: more support for biocomplexity as a research paradigm. EcoHealth 3:1–2CrossRef Wilcox BA (2006) Amphibian decline: more support for biocomplexity as a research paradigm. EcoHealth 3:1–2CrossRef
go back to reference Williams ES, Yuill T, Artois M, Fischer J, Haigh SA (2002) Emerging infectious diseases in wildlife. Scientific and Technical Review Office International des Epizooties 21:139–157 Williams ES, Yuill T, Artois M, Fischer J, Haigh SA (2002) Emerging infectious diseases in wildlife. Scientific and Technical Review Office International des Epizooties 21:139–157
Metadata
Title
Spread of Chytridiomycosis Has Caused the Rapid Global Decline and Extinction of Frogs
Authors
Lee Francis Skerratt
Lee Berger
Richard Speare
Scott Cashins
Keith Raymond McDonald
Andrea Dawn Phillott
Harry Bryan Hines
Nicole Kenyon
Publication date
01-06-2007
Publisher
Springer-Verlag
Published in
EcoHealth / Issue 2/2007
Print ISSN: 1612-9202
Electronic ISSN: 1612-9210
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-007-0093-5

Other articles of this Issue 2/2007

EcoHealth 2/2007 Go to the issue

BookReview

Book Review

What's New

What’s New?