Top

Child's Nervous System

Published in:

01-10-2018 | Special Annual Issue

Fungal infections in pediatric neurosurgery

Authors: Adrian Caceres, Maria Luisa Avila, Marco Luis Herrera

Published in: Child's Nervous System | Issue 10/2018

Abstract

Introduction

Invasive mycosis of the central nervous system represent a diverse group of diseases that have gradually emerged as not only opportunistic infections in patients with immune susceptibility due to congenital and acquired deficiency, immunomodulation, solid organ and stem cell transplantation, hematological malignancies, and chronic steroid use but also in selected risk populations such as low weight preterm infants, patients with shunted hydrocephalus and external ventricular drainages, skull base surgery, and head injury.

Objectives

The purpose of this review is to familiarize the pediatric neurosurgeon with the most common mycosis and their clinical scenarios which can be encountered in the clinical practice, with special emphasis on clinical, radiological, and laboratory diagnosis beyond classical microorganism cultures as well as options in medical and surgical treatment given the high incidence of morbidity and mortality associated with these challenging entities.

Methods

We conducted an online database review (Ovid, PubMed) gathering relevant English language literature published in the last 20 years with special emphasis on recent breakthroughs in the diagnosis and treatment of invasive mycosis of the CNS as well as reported cases within the pediatric neurosurgical literature and their surgical management.

Results

Fungal agents capable of invading the CNS can behave as aggressive entities with rapid progression manifesting as overwhelming meningoencephalitis with vascular compromise or can lead to space-occupying lesions with abscess formation which require prompt diagnosis by either laboratory identification of the components of these biological agents and their host response or by obtaining tissue specimens for microbiological identification which may not be straightforward due to prolonged culture time.

Conclusion

Following a high degree of suspicion with prompt initiation of antifungal agents and reversal of potential immunosuppressant therapies along with neurosurgical evacuation of intracranial collections or removal of infected hardware (CSF shunts) can lead to more optimistic outcomes of these complex clinical scenarios.

Singhi P, Saini AG (2017) Fungal and parasitic CNS infections. Indian J Pediatr. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-017-2487-x

McCarthy MW, Kalasauskas D, Petraitis V et al (2017) Fungal infections of the central nervous system in children. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 6:e123–e133. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/pix059 PubMedCrossRef

Schwartz S, Kontoyiannis DP, Harrison T, Ruhnke M (2018) Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections of the CNS. Lancet Neurol 17:362–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30030-9 PubMedCrossRef

Kourbeti IS, Mylonakis E (2014) Fungal central nervous system infections: prevalence and diagnosis. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 12:265–273. https://doi.org/10.1586/14787210.2014.874282 PubMedCrossRef

Panigrahy A, Bluml S (2007) Advances in magnetic resonance neuroimaging techniques in the evaluation of neonatal encephalopathy. Top Magn Reson Imaging 18:3–29. https://doi.org/10.1097/RMR.0b013e318093e6c7 PubMedCrossRef

Bongomin F, Gago S, Oladele RO, Denning DW (2017) Global and multi-national prevalence of fungal diseases-estimate precision. J fungi (Basel, Switzerland) 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3040057

Charalambous LT, Premji A, Tybout C, Hunt A, Cutshaw D, Elsamadicy AA, Yang S, Xie J, Giamberardino C, Pagadala P, Perfect JR, Lad SP (2018) Prevalence, healthcare resource utilization and overall burden of fungal meningitis in the United States. J Med Microbiol 67:215–227. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.000656 PubMedCrossRef

Mathur M, Johnson CE, Sze G (2012) Fungal infections of the central nervous system. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 22:609–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nic.2012.04.004 PubMedCrossRef

Lanternier F, Mahdaviani SA, Barbati E et al (2015) Inherited CARD9 deficiency in otherwise healthy children and adults with Candida species–induced meningoencephalitis, colitis, or both. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135:1558–1568.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.12.1930 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

10.

Sadeghi G, Ebrahimi-Rad M, Mousavi SF, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Razzaghi-Abyaneh M (2018) Emergence of non-Candida albicans species: epidemiology, phylogeny and fluconazole susceptibility profile. J Mycol Med 28:51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycmed.2017.12.008 PubMedCrossRef

11.

Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, Benjamin DK Jr, Calandra TF, Edwards JE Jr, Filler SG, Fisher JF, Kullberg BJ, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD (2009) Clinical practice guidelines for the Management of Candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 48:503–535. https://doi.org/10.1086/596757 PubMedCrossRef

12.

Sakita KM, Faria DR, da Silva EM et al (2017) Healthcare workers’ hands as a vehicle for the transmission of virulent strains of Candida spp.: a virulence factor approach. Microb Pathog 113:225–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2017.10.044 PubMedCrossRef

13.

Warris A, European Paediatric Mycology Network (EPMyN)* (2016) The European Paediatric Mycology Network (EPMyN): towards a better understanding and management of fungal infections in children. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 10:7–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12281-016-0252-7 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

14.

Xia H, Wu H, Xia S, Zhu X, Chen C, Qiu G, Zhou W, Shi Y, Ma L, Sun J, Zhou X, Zhu J (2014) Invasive candidiasis in preterm neonates in China. Pediatr Infect Dis J 33:106–109. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000000009 PubMedCrossRef

15.

Adams-Chapman I, Bann CM, Das A et al (2013) Neurodevelopmental outcome of extremely low birth weight infants with Candida infection. J Pediatr 163:961–7.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.04.034 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

16.

Karnani N, Gaur NA, Jha S, Puri N, Krishnamurthy S, Goswami SK, Mukhopadhyay G, Prasad R (2004) SRE1 and SRE2 are two specific steroid-responsive modules of Candida drug resistance gene 1(CDR1) promoter. Yeast 21:219–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.1067 PubMedCrossRef

17.

Gaur NA, Puri N, Karnani N et al (2004) Identification of a negative regulatory element which regulates basal transcription of a multidrug resistance gene CDR1 of Candida albicans. FEMS Yeast Res 4:389–399PubMedCrossRef

18.

Agus S, Spektor S, Israel Z (2000) CNS granulomatosis in a child with chronic granulomatous disease. Br J Neurosurg 14:59–61PubMedCrossRef

19.

O’brien D, Cotter M, Hiang Lim C et al (2011) Candida parapsilosis meningitis associated with Gliadel (BCNU) wafer implants. Br J Neurosurg 25:289–291. https://doi.org/10.3109/02688697.2010.534202 PubMedCrossRef

20.

O’Brien D, Stevens NT, Lim CH, O’Brien DF, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F, Humphreys H (2011) Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review. Acta Neurochir 153:1347–1350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-011-0990-9 PubMedCrossRef

21.

Chiou CC, Wong TT, Lin HH, Hwang B, Tang RB, Wu KG, Lee BH (1994) Fungal infection of ventriculoperitoneal shunts in children. Clin Infect Dis 19:1049–1053PubMedCrossRef

22.

Bagheri F, Cervellione KL, Maruf M, Marino W, Santucci T Jr (2010) Candida parapsilosis meningitis associated with shunt infection in an adult male. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 112:248–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2009.11.011 PubMedCrossRef

23.

Benachinmardi K, Ravikumar R, Indiradevi B (2017) Role of biofilm in cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections: a study at tertiary neurocare center from South India. J Neurosci Rural Pract 8:335. https://doi.org/10.4103/jnrp.jnrp_22_17 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

24.

Murphy K, Bradley J, James HE (2000) The treatment of Candida albicans shunt infections. Childs Nerv Syst 16:4–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003810050002 PubMedCrossRef

25.

Sánchez-Portocarrero J, Pérez-Cecilia E, Corral O et al (2000) The central nervous system and infection by Candida species. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 37:169–179PubMedCrossRef

26.

Shapiro S, Javed T, Mealey J (1989) Candida albicans shunt infection. Pediatr Neurosci 15:125–130PubMedCrossRef

27.

Gower DJ, Crone K, Alexander E, Kelly DL (1986) Candida albicans shunt infection: report of two cases. Neurosurgery 19:111–113PubMedCrossRef

28.

Cavalheiro M, Teixeira MC (2018) Candida biofilms: threats, challenges, and promising strategies. Front Med 5:28. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00028 CrossRef

29.

Treviño-Rangel RJ, Peña-López CD, Hernández-Rodríguez PA et al (2018) Association between Candida biofilm-forming bloodstream isolates and the clinical evolution in patients with candidemia: an observational nine-year single center study in Mexico. Rev Iberoam Micol 35:11–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2017.01.005 PubMedCrossRef

30.

Ostrow TD, Hudgins PA (1994) Magnetic resonance imaging of intracranial fungal infections. Top Magn Reson Imaging 6:22–31PubMed

31.

Nyazika TK, Masanganise F, Hagen F, Bwakura-Dangarembizi MF, Ticklay IMH, Robertson VJ (2016) Cryptococcal meningitis presenting as a complication in HIV-infected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 35:979–980. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000001212 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

32.

Iverson SA, Chiller T, Beekmann S, Polgreen PM, Harris J (2012) Recognition and diagnosis of Cryptococcus gattii infections in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 18:1012–1015. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1806.111228 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

33.

Harris J, Lockhart S, Chiller T (2012) Cryptococcus gattii: where do we go from here? Med Mycol 50:113–129. https://doi.org/10.3109/13693786.2011.607854 PubMedCrossRef

34.

Guarner J, Brandt ME (2011) Histopathologic diagnosis of fungal infections in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Rev 24:247–280. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00053-10 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

35.

Kovoor JME, Mahadevan A, Narayan JP et al (2002) Cryptococcal choroid plexitis as a mass lesion: MR imaging and histopathologic correlation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 23:273–276PubMed

36.

Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al Clinical practice guidelines for the Management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. https://doi.org/10.1086/649858

37.

Burgos A, Zaoutis TE, Dvorak CC, Hoffman JA, Knapp KM, Nania JJ, Prasad P, Steinbach WJ (2008) Pediatric invasive aspergillosis: a multicenter retrospective analysis of 139 contemporary cases. Pediatrics 121:e1286–e1294. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2117 PubMedCrossRef

38.

Özen M, Dündar NO (2011) Invasive aspergillosis in children with hematological malignancies. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 9:299–306PubMedCrossRef

39.

Mohindra S, Gupta R, Mohindra S, Gupta SK, Vaiphei K (2006) Cerebellar aspergillosis in an infant: case report. Neurosurgery 58:E587. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000197485.40244.A8 PubMedCrossRef

40.

Ruhnke M, Kofla G, Otto K, Schwartz S (2007) CNS aspergillosis: recognition, diagnosis and management. CNS Drugs 21:659–676PubMedCrossRef

41.

Torre-Cisneros J, Lopez OL, Kusne S, Martinez AJ, Starzl TE, Simmons RL, Martin M (1993) CNS aspergillosis in organ transplantation: a clinicopathological study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:188–193. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.56.2.188 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

42.

Cordelli DM, Masetti R, Zama D, Toni F, Castelli I, Ricci E, Franzoni E, Pession A (2017) Central nervous system complications in children receiving chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Front Pediatr 5:105. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2017.00105 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

43.

Glocker E-O, Hennigs A, Nabavi M, Schäffer AA, Woellner C, Salzer U, Pfeifer D, Veelken H, Warnatz K, Tahami F, Jamal S, Manguiat A, Rezaei N, Amirzargar AA, Plebani A, Hannesschläger N, Gross O, Ruland J, Grimbacher B (2009) A homozygous CARD9 mutation in a family with susceptibility to fungal infections. N Engl J Med 361:1727–1735. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0810719 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

44.

Gross O, Gewies A, Finger K, Schäfer M, Sparwasser T, Peschel C, Förster I, Ruland J (2006) Card9 controls a non-TLR signalling pathway for innate anti-fungal immunity. Nature 442:651–656. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04926 PubMedCrossRef

45.

Hagel S, Ewald C, Doenst T, Sachse S, Roedel J, Pletz MW (2015) Ventriculitis due to infection with Rhizopus arrhizus. Med Mycol Case Rep 10:18–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2015.12.004 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

46.

Ribes JA, Vanover-Sams CL, Baker DJ (2000) Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 13:236–301PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

47.

Hofman P (2016) Mucormycosis BT - infectious disease and parasites. In: Hofman P (ed). Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 207–210

48.

Vehreschild JJ, Birtel A, Vehreschild MJGT, Liss B, Farowski F, Kochanek M, Sieniawski M, Steinbach A, Wahlers K, Fätkenheuer G, Cornely OA (2013) Mucormycosis treated with posaconazole: review of 96 case reports. Crit Rev Microbiol 39:310–324. https://doi.org/10.3109/1040841X.2012.711741 PubMedCrossRef

49.

Hamilton JF, Bartkowski HB, Rock JP (2003) Management of CNS mucormycosis in the pediatric patient. Pediatr Neurosurg 38:212–215. https://doi.org/10.1159/000069101 PubMedCrossRef

50.

Däbritz J, Attarbaschi A, Tintelnot K, Kollmar N, Kremens B, Loewenich FD, Schrod L, Schuster F, Wintergerst U, Weig M, Lehrnbecher T, Groll AH (2011) Mucormycosis in paediatric patients: demographics, risk factors and outcome of 12 contemporary cases. Mycoses 54:e785–e788. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.2011.02025.x PubMedCrossRef

51.

Nino-Serna L, Restrepo-Gouzy A, Garces-Samudio C, Trujillo-Honeysberg M (2013) Cerebral histoplasmosis in immunocompetent children. Rev Neurol 56:444–446PubMed

52.

Wheat LJ, Azar MM, Bahr NC, Spec A, Relich RF, Hage C (2016) Histoplasmosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 30:207–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2015.10.009 CrossRef

53.

Murthy JMK, Sundaram C (2014) Fungal infections of the central nervous system. In: Handbook of clinical neurology. pp 1383–1401

54.

Ranganath S, McGhie TA, LaRosa S et al (2012) Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of central nervous system histoplasmosis. Am J Med 125:e1–e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.12.011 PubMedCrossRef

55.

Murthy JMK Fungal infections of the central nervous system: the clinical syndromes. Neurol India 55:221–225

56.

Carod-Artal FJ, Venturini M, Gomes E, de Mello MT (2008) Chronic central nervous system histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient. Neurologia 23:263–268PubMed

57.

Veeravagu A, Ludwig C, Camara-Quintana JQ et al (2013) Fungal infection of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt: histoplasmosis diagnosis and treatment. World Neurosurg 80:222.e5–222.e13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2012.12.016 CrossRef

58.

Nakayama H, Shibuya K, Kimura M, Ueda M, Iwabuchi S (2010) Histopathological study of candidal infection in the central nervous system. Nihon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 51:31–45PubMedCrossRef

59.

Black KE, Baden LR (2007) Fungal infections of the CNS: treatment strategies for the immunocompromised patient. CNS Drugs 21:293–318PubMedCrossRef

60.

Engelthaler DM, Roe CC, Hepp CM, Teixeira M, Driebe EM, Schupp JM, Gade L, Waddell V, Komatsu K, Arathoon E, Logemann H, Thompson GR III, Chiller T, Barker B, Keim P, Litvintseva AP (2016) Local population structure and patterns of western hemisphere dispersal for Coccidioides spp., the fungal cause of valley fever. MBio 7:e00550–e00516. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00550-16 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

61.

DiCaudo DJ (2006) Coccidioidomycosis: a review and update. J Am Acad Dermatol 55:929–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2006.04.039 PubMedCrossRef

62.

Martirosyan NL, Skoch JM, Zaninovich O, Zoccali C, Galgiani JN, Baaj AA (2015) A paradigm for the evaluation and management of spinal coccidioidomycosis. Surg Neurol Int 6:107. https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.158979 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

63.

Drake KW, Adam RD (2009) Coccidioidal meningitis and brain abscesses: analysis of 71 cases at a referral center. Neurology 73:1780–1786. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c34b69 PubMedCrossRef

64.

Erly WK, Labadie E, Williams PL et al (1999) Disseminated coccidioidomycosis complicated by vasculitis: a cause of fatal subarachnoid hemorrhage in two cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 20:1605–1608PubMed

65.

de Almeida SM (2005) Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: an overview. Braz J Infect Dis 9:126–133PubMedCrossRef

66.

Delboni Nunes NE, Schmidt EB, Massaroni Peçanha MA, Zanotti RL, Gonçalves Ferreira CU, Lamas de Araújo M, Potratz FF, Peçanha PM, Batista Ferreira ME, Delmaestro D, Falqueto A (2017) Paracoccidioidomycosis: epidemiological and clinical aspects in 546 cases studied in the State of Espírito Santo, Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 97:836–844. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0790 PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral

67.

Elias J, dos Santos AC, Carlotti CG et al (2005) Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: diagnosis and treatment. Surg Neurol 63:S13–S21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surneu.2004.09.019 PubMedCrossRef

68.

Saccente M, Woods GL (2010) Clinical and laboratory update on blastomycosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 23:367–381. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00056-09 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

69.

Nosanchuk JD, van Duin D, Mandal P et al (2004) Blastomyces dermatitidis produces melanin in vitro and during infection. FEMS Microbiol Lett 239:187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.femsle.2004.08.040 PubMedCrossRef

70.

Chapman SW, Dismukes WE, Proia LA, Bradsher RW, Pappas PG, Threlkeld MG, Kauffman CA (2008) Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 46:1801–1812. https://doi.org/10.1086/588300 PubMedCrossRef

71.

Bariola JR, Perry P, Pappas PG, Proia L, Shealey W, Wright PW, Sizemore JM, Robinson M, Bradsher RW (2010) Blastomycosis of the central nervous system: a multicenter review of diagnosis and treatment in the modern era. Clin Infect Dis 50:797–804. https://doi.org/10.1086/650579 PubMedCrossRef

72.

Hardjasudarma M, Willis B, Black-Payne C, Edwards R (1995) Pediatric spinal blastomycosis: case report. Neurosurgery 37:534–536PubMedCrossRef

73.

Hadjipavlou AG, Mader JT, Nauta HJ et al (1998) Blastomycosis of the lumbar spine: case report and review of the literature, with emphasis on diagnostic laboratory tools and management. Eur Spine J 7:416–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/S005860050100 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

74.

Starkey J, Moritani T, Kirby P (2014) MRI of CNS fungal infections: review of aspergillosis to histoplasmosis and everything in between. Clin Neuroradiol 24:217–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00062-014-0305-7 PubMedCrossRef

75.

Mueller-Mang C, Castillo M, Mang TG, Cartes-Zumelzu F, Weber M, Thurnher MM (2007) Fungal versus bacterial brain abscesses: is diffusion-weighted MR imaging a useful tool in the differential diagnosis? Neuroradiology 49:651–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-007-0242-0 PubMedCrossRef

76.

Kamran S, Bener AB, Alper D, Bakshi R Role of fluid-attenuated inversion recovery in the diagnosis of meningitis: comparison with contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Comput Assist Tomogr 28:68–72

77.

Duarte SBL, Oshima MM, Mesquita JVA et al (2017) Magnetic resonance imaging findings in central nervous system cryptococcosis: comparison between immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. Radiol Bras 50:359–365. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-3984.2016.0017 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

78.

Jain KK, Mittal SK, Kumar S, Gupta RK Imaging features of central nervous system fungal infections. Neurol India 55:241–250

79.

Marzolf G, Sabou M, Lannes B, Cotton F, Meyronet D, Galanaud D, Cottier JP, Grand S, Desal H, Kreutz J, Schenck M, Meyer N, Schneider F, Dietemann JL, Koob M, Herbrecht R, Kremer S (2016) Magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral aspergillosis: imaging and pathological correlations. PLoS One 11:e0152475. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152475 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

80.

Scully MA, Yeaney GA, Compton ML, Berg MJ (2012) SWAN MRI revealing multiple microhemorrhages secondary to septic emboli from mucormycosis. Neurology 79:1932–1933. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318271f86c PubMedCrossRef

81.

Reis F, Collier PP, Souza TF, Lopes GP, Bronzatto E, Junior NAS, Pereira RM, Appenzeller S (2013) Neuroparacoccidioidomycosis (NPCM): magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings. Mycopathologia 175:181–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-012-9607-y PubMedCrossRef

82.

Mokaddas E, Burhamah MH, Khan ZU, Ahmad S (2010) Levels of (1→3)-β-D-glucan, Candida mannan and Candida DNA in serum samples of pediatric cancer patients colonized with Candida species. BMC Infect Dis 10:292. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-10-292 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

83.

Salvatore CM, Chen TK, Toussi SS, DeLaMora P, Petraitiene R, Finkelman MA, Walsh TJ (2016) (1→3)-β-d-Glucan in cerebrospinal fluid as a biomarker for Candida and Aspergillus infections of the central nervous system in pediatric patients. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 5:277–286. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piv014 PubMedCrossRef

84.

Fernandez M, Moylett EH, Noyola DE, Baker CJ (2000) Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year review. Clin Infect Dis 31:458–463. https://doi.org/10.1086/313973 PubMedCrossRef

85.

McCarthy MW, Walsh TJ (2017) Molecular diagnosis of invasive mycoses of the central nervous system. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 17:129–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737159.2017.1271716 PubMedCrossRef

86.

Clancy CJ, Pappas PG, Vazquez J, Judson MA, Kontoyiannis DP, Thompson GR III, Garey KW, Reboli A, Greenberg RN, Apewokin S, Lyon GM III, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Wu AHB, Tobin E, Nguyen MH, Caliendo AM (2018) Detecting infections rapidly and easily for candidemia trial, part 2 (DIRECT2): a prospective, multicenter study of the T2candida panel. Clin Infect Dis 66:1678–1686. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix1095 PubMedCrossRef

87.

Hariri OR, Minasian T, Quadri SA, Dyurgerova A, Farr S, Miulli D, Siddiqi J (2015) Histoplasmosis with deep CNS involvement: case presentation with discussion and literature review. J Neurol Surg Rep 76:e167–e172. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554932 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

88.

Mischel PS, Vinters HV (1995) Coccidioidomycosis of the central nervous system: neuropathological and vasculopathic manifestations and clinical correlates. Clin Infect Dis 20:400–405PubMedCrossRef

89.

Fagundes-Pereyra WJ, Carvalho GTC, Góes AM et al (2006) Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: analysis of 13 cases. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 64:269–276PubMedCrossRef

90.

de Almeida SM, Queiroz-Telles F, Teive HAG et al (2004) Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: clinical features and laboratorial findings. J Inf Secur 48:193–198

91.

Durkin M, Witt J, LeMonte A, Wheat B, Connolly P (2004) Antigen assay with the potential to aid in diagnosis of blastomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 42:4873–4875. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.10.4873-4875.2004 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

92.

Rangel-Castilla L, Hwang SW, White AC, Zhang YJ (2012) Neuroendoscopic diagnosis of central nervous system histoplasmosis with basilar arachnoiditis. World Neurosurg 77:399.e9–399.e13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2011.06.016 CrossRef

93.

Geers TA, Gordon SM (1999) Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery. Clin Infect Dis 28:1139–1147. https://doi.org/10.1086/514755 PubMedCrossRef

94.

Montero A, Romero J, Vargas JA, Regueiro CA, Sánchez-Aloz G, de Prados F, de la Torre A, Aragón G (2000) Candida infection of cerebrospinal fluid shunt devices: report of two cases and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir 142:67–74PubMedCrossRef

95.

Mehta GU, Panackal AA, Murayi R, Bennett JE, Williamson PR, Chittiboina P (2018) Corticosteroids for shunted previously healthy patients with non-HIV cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 89:219–220. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2017-315830 PubMedCrossRef

96.

Viereck MJ, Chalouhi N, Krieger DI, Judy KD (2014) Cryptococcal ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection. J Clin Neurosci 21:2020–2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2014.08.001 PubMedCrossRef

97.

Foong KS, Lee A, Vasquez G (2016) Cryptococcal Infection of the ventriculoperitoneal shunt in an immunocompetent patient. Am J Case Rep 17:31–34. https://doi.org/10.12659/AJCR.896171 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

98.

Panackal AA, Komori M, Kosa P, Khan O, Hammoud DA, Rosen LB, Browne SK, Lin YC, Romm E, Ramaprasad C, Fries BC, Bennett JE, Bielekova B, Williamson PR (2017) Spinal arachnoiditis as a complication of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in non-HIV previously healthy adults. Clin Infect Dis 64:275–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw739 PubMedCrossRef

99.

Palejwala SK, Zangeneh TT, Goldstein SA, Lemole GM (2016) An aggressive multidisciplinary approach reduces mortality in rhinocerebral mucormycosis. Surg Neurol Int 7:61. https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.182964 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

100.

Chan LL, Singh S, Jones D et al (2000) Imaging of mucormycosis skull base osteomyelitis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21:828–831PubMed

101.

Kolekar JS (2015) Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: a retrospective study. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 67:93–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12070-014-0804-5 PubMedCrossRef

102.

Safar A, Marsan J, Marglani O, al-Sebeih K, al-Harbi J, Valvoda M (2005) Early identification of rhinocerebral mucormycosis. J Otolaryngol 34:166–171PubMedCrossRef

103.

Abu El-Naaj I, Leiser Y, Wolff A, Peled M (2013) The surgical management of rhinocerebral mucormycosis. J Cranio-Maxillofac Surg 41:291–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2012.03.019 CrossRef

104.

Shah S, Keshri A, Patadia S, Marak R, Behari S (2016) Invasive aspergillosis of anterior skull base in the immunocompetent host: outcomes with a combined treatment modality–an institutional experience. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 78:089–095. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1585089 CrossRef

105.

Nadkarni T, Goel A (2005) Aspergilloma of the brain: an overview. J Postgrad Med 51(Suppl 1):S37–S41PubMed

106.

Hardesty DA, Ramey W, Afrasiabi M, Beck B, Gonzalez O, Moran A, Nakaji P (2014) Patient outcomes and surgical complications in coccidioidomycosis-related hydrocephalus: an institutional review. J Neurosurg 121:785–789. https://doi.org/10.3171/2014.6.JNS14111 PubMedCrossRef

107.

Davis LE, Cook G, Costerton JW (2002) Biofilm on ventriculo-peritoneal shunt tubing as a cause of treatment failure in coccidioidal meningitis. Emerg Infect Dis 8:376–379. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0804.010103 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

108.

Young RF, Gade G, Grinnell V (1985) Surgical treatment for fungal infections in the central nervous system. J Neurosurg 63:371–381. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1985.63.3.0371 PubMedCrossRef

109.

Jiang P-F, Yu H-M, Zhou B-L, Gao F, Shen SX, Xia ZZ, Shui QX (2010) The role of an Ommaya reservoir in the management of children with cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 112:157–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2009.10.006 PubMedCrossRef

110.

Nakama T, Yamashita S, Hirahara T, Okamoto S, Honda S, Watanabe M, Kimura E, Uchino M, Yano S, Kuratsu JI, Ando Y (2015) Usefulness of intraventricular infusion of antifungal drugs through Ommaya reservoirs for cryptococcal meningitis treatment. J Neurol Sci 358:259–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2015.09.005 PubMedCrossRef

111.

Parr AM, Fewer D (2004) Intramedullary blastomycosis in a child: case report. Can J Neurol Sci 31:282–285PubMedCrossRef

Title: Fungal infections in pediatric neurosurgery
Authors: Adrian Caceres
Maria Luisa Avila
Marco Luis Herrera
Publication date: 01-10-2018
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: Child's Nervous System / Issue 10/2018
Print ISSN: 0256-7040
Electronic ISSN: 1433-0350
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-018-3942-3

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Fungal infections in pediatric neurosurgery

Abstract

Introduction

Objectives

Methods

Results

Conclusion

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Introduction

Objectives

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 10/2018

Infections in the immunocompromised child

Tuberculosis of the central nervous system in children

The history of intracranial infections

Presidential address 2017 William Harkness FRCS October 10th 2017 Denver, Co USA: 2017—annus mirabilis, a global view of neurosurgery for children

A tribute to professor Jonathan C Peter

William Harkness, president of the ISPN 2016–2017