Top

Published in:

01-09-2017 | Topic Paper

Epidemiology of stone disease across the world

Authors: Igor Sorokin, Charalampos Mamoulakis, Katsuhito Miyazawa, Allen Rodgers, Jamsheer Talati, Yair Lotan

Published in: World Journal of Urology | Issue 9/2017

Abstract

Nephrolithiasis is a highly prevalent disease worldwide with rates ranging from 7 to 13% in North America, 5–9% in Europe, and 1–5% in Asia. Due to high rates of new and recurrent stones, management of stones is expensive and the disease has a high level of acute and chronic morbidity. The goal of this study is to review the epidemiology of stone disease in order to improve patient care. A review of the literature was conducted through a search on Pubmed^®, Medline^®, and Google Scholar^®. This review was presented and peer-reviewed at the 3rd International Consultation on Stone Disease during the 2014 Société Internationale d’Urologie Congress in Glasgow. It represents an update of the 2008 consensus document based on expert opinion of the most relevant studies. There has been a rising incidence in stone disease throughout the world with a narrowing of the gender gap. Increased stone prevalence has been attributed to population growth and increases in obesity and diabetes. General dietary recommendations of increased fluid, decreased salt, and moderate intake of protein have not changed. However, specific recommended values have either changed or are more frequently reported. Geography and environment influenced the likelihood of stone disease and more information is needed regarding stone disease in a large portion of the world including Asia and Africa. Randomized controlled studies are lacking but are necessary to improve recommendations regarding diet and fluid intake. Understanding the impact of associated conditions that are rapidly increasing will improve the prevention of stone disease.

Ramello A, Vitale C, Marangella M (2000) Epidemiology of nephrolithiasis. J Nephrol 13(Suppl 3):S45–S50PubMed

Pinduli I, Spivacow R, del Valle E, Vidal S, Negri AL, Previgliano H, Farias Edos R, Andrade JH, Negri GM, Boffi-Boggero HJ (2006) Prevalence of urolithiasis in the autonomous city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Urol Res 34(1):8–11. doi:10.1007/s00240-005-0003-7 PubMedCrossRef

Medina-Escobedo M, Zaidi M, Real-de Leon E, Orozco-Rivadeneyra S (2002) Urolithiasis prevalence and risk factors in Yucatan, Mexico. Salud Publica de Mexico 44 (6):541–545PubMedCrossRef

Scales CD, Jr., Smith AC, Hanley JM, Saigal CS, Urologic diseases in America P (2012) Prevalence of kidney stones in the United States. Eur Urol 62(1):160–165. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2012.03.052 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Stamatelou KK, Francis ME, Jones CA, Nyberg LM, Curhan GC (2003) Time trends in reported prevalence of kidney stones in the United States: 1976–1994. Kidney Int 63(5):1817–1823. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00917.x PubMedCrossRef

Yasui T, Iguchi M, Suzuki S, Kohri K (2008) Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of urolithiasis in Japan: national trends between 1965 and 2005. Urology 71(2):209–213. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.034 PubMedCrossRef

Indridason OS, Birgisson S, Edvardsson VO, Sigvaldason H, Sigfusson N, Palsson R (2006) Epidemiology of kidney stones in Iceland: a population-based study. Scand J Urol Nephrol 40(3):215–220. doi:10.1080/00365590600589898 PubMedCrossRef

Edvardsson VO, Indridason OS, Haraldsson G, Kjartansson O, Palsson R (2013) Temporal trends in the incidence of kidney stone disease. Kidney Int 83(1):146–152. doi:10.1038/ki.2012.320 PubMedCrossRef

Trinchieri A, Curhan G, Karlsen S, Jun Wu K (2003) Epidemiology. In: Segura J, Conort P KS (eds) Editions 21, Proceedings of 1st International Consultation On Stone Disease, Paris

10.

Curhan GC, Goldfarb D, Trinchieri A (2008) Epidemiology of stone disease. In: Denstedt J, Khoury S (eds) Stone disease. Health Publications, Paris, pp 9–20

11.

Saigal CS, Joyce G, Timilsina AR, Urologic Diseases in America P (2005) Direct and indirect costs of nephrolithiasis in an employed population: opportunity for disease management? Kidney Int 68(4):1808–1814. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00599.x PubMedCrossRef

12.

Hiatt RA, Dales LG, Friedman GD, Hunkeler EM (1982) Frequency of urolithiasis in a prepaid medical care program. Am J Epidemiol 115(2):255–265PubMedCrossRef

13.

Ogawa Y (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease over a 40-year period in Japan. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 89–96

14.

Croppi E, Ferraro PM, Taddei L, Gambaro G, Group GEAFS (2012) Prevalence of renal stones in an Italian urban population: a general practice-based study. Urol Res 40(5):517–522. doi:10.1007/s00240-012-0477-z PubMedCrossRef

15.

Daudon M, Dore JC, Jungers P, Lacour B (2004) Changes in stone composition according to age and gender of patients: a multivariate epidemiological approach. Urol Res 32(3):241–247. doi:10.1007/s00240-004-0421-y PubMedCrossRef

16.

Knoll T, Schubert AB, Fahlenkamp D, Leusmann DB, Wendt-Nordahl G, Schubert G (2011) Urolithiasis through the ages: data on more than 200,000 urinary stone analyses. J Urol 185(4):1304–1311. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2010.11.073 PubMedCrossRef

17.

Osther PJS (2012) Epidemiology of kidney stones in the European Union. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 3–12

18.

Trinchieri A, Coppi F, Montanari E, Del Nero A, Zanetti G, Pisani E (2000) Increase in the prevalence of symptomatic upper urinary tract stones during the last ten years. Eur Urol 37(1):23–25. doi:10.1159/000020094 PubMedCrossRef

19.

Walker V, Stansbridge EM, Griffin DG (2013) Demography and biochemistry of 2800 patients from a renal stones clinic. Ann Clin Biochem 50 (Pt 2):127–139. doi:10.1258/acb.2012.012122

20.

Zeng Q, He Y (2013) Age-specific prevalence of kidney stones in Chinese urban inhabitants. Urolithiasis 41 (1):91–93. doi:10.1007/s00240-012-0520-0 PubMedCrossRef

21.

Lieske JC, Pena de la Vega LS, Slezak JM, Bergstralh EJ, Leibson CL, Ho KL, Gettman MT (2006) Renal stone epidemiology in Rochester, Minnesota: an update. Kidney Int 69 (4):760–764. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5000150 PubMedCrossRef

22.

Strope SA, Wolf JS, Jr., Hollenbeck BK (2010) Changes in gender distribution of urinary stone disease. Urology 75 (3):543–546, 546 e541. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.08.007

23.

Asper R (1984) Epidemiology and socioeconomic aspects of urolithiasis. Urol Res 12(1):1–5PubMedCrossRef

24.

Abomelha MS, Al-Khader AA, Arnold J (1990) Urolithiasis in Saudi Arabia. Urology 35(1):31–34PubMedCrossRef

25.

Lee YH, Huang WC, Tsai JY, Lu CM, Chen WC, Lee MH, Hsu HS, Huang JK, Chang LS (2002) Epidemiological studies on the prevalence of upper urinary calculi in Taiwan. Urol Int 68(3):172–177. doi:10.1159/000048445 PubMedCrossRef

26.

Kabore FA, Kambou T, Zango B, Ouattara A, Simpore M, Lougue-Sorgho C, Lechevalier E, Karsenty G (2013) Epidemiology of a cohort of 450 urolithiasis at the Yalgado Ouedraogo University hospital of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Progres Urol 23 (12):971–976CrossRef

27.

Pearle MS, Calhoun EA, Curhan GC, Urologic Diseases of America P (2005) Urologic diseases in America project: urolithiasis. J Urol 173(3):848–857. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000152082.14384.d7 PubMedCrossRef

28.

Emamian SA, Nielsen MB, Pedersen JF, Ytte L (1993) Sonographic evaluation of renal appearance in 665 adult volunteers. Correlation with age and obesity. Acta Radiol 34(5):482–485PubMedCrossRef

29.

Oshibuchi M, Nishi F, Sato M, Ohtake H, Okuda K (1991) Frequency of abnormalities detected by abdominal ultrasound among Japanese adults. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 6(2):165–168PubMedCrossRef

30.

Buchholz NP, Abbas F, Afzal M, Khan R, Rizvi I, Talati J (2003) The prevalence of silent kidney stones—an ultrasonographic screening study. JPMA 53(1):24–25

31.

Bartoletti R, Cai T, Mondaini N, Melone F, Travaglini F, Carini M, Rizzo M (2007) Epidemiology and risk factors in urolithiasis. Urol Int 79(Suppl 1):3–7. doi:10.1159/000104434 PubMedCrossRef

32.

Portis AJ, Hermans K, Culhane-Pera KA, Curhan GC (2004) Stone disease in the Hmong of Minnesota: initial description of a high-risk population. J Endourol Endourol Soc 18(9):853–857. doi:10.1089/end.2004.18.853 CrossRef

33.

Rodgers A (2012) Epidemiology: South Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 67–71

34.

Khan AS, Rai ME, Gandapur, Pervaiz A, Shah AH, Hussain AA, Siddiq M (2004) Epidemiological risk factors and composition of urinary stones in Riyadh Saudi Arabia. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad JAMC 16(3):56–58PubMed

35.

Marickar, YM (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in Kerala, South India. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 47–51

36.

Yoshida O, Terai A, Ohkawa T, Okada Y (1999) National trend of the incidence of urolithiasis in Japan from 1965 to 1995. Kidney Int 56(5):1899–904 doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.00754.x PubMedCrossRef

37.

Hussein NS, Sadiq SM, Kamaliah MD, Norakmal AW, Gohar MN (2013) Twenty-four-hour urine constituents in stone formers: a study from the northeast part of Peninsular Malaysia. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transp 24(3):630–637CrossRef

38.

Ganesamoni K (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in Northern India. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 47–52

39.

Stitchantrakul W, Kochakarn W, Ruangraksa C, Domrongkitchaiporn S (2007) Urinary risk factors for recurrent calcium stone formation in Thai stone formers. J Med Assoc Thail 90(4):688–698

40.

Soucie JM, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H, Thun M (1996) Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones. Am J Epidemiol 143(5):487–495PubMedCrossRef

41.

Mandel NS, Mandel GS (1989) Urinary tract stone disease in the United States veteran population. I. Geographical frequency of occurrence. J Urol 142(6):1513–1515PubMedCrossRef

42.

Frank M, Atsmon A, Sugar P, De Vries A (1963) Epidemiological investigation of urolithiasis in the hot arid Southern region of Israel. Urol Int 15:65–76PubMedCrossRef

43.

Blacklock NJ (1965) The pattern of urolithiasis in the Royal Navy. J R Nav Med Serv 51(2):99–111PubMed

44.

Evans K, Costabile RA (2005) Time to development of symptomatic urinary calculi in a high risk environment. J Urol 173(3):858–861. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000152578.07262.1c PubMedCrossRef

45.

Chen YK, Lin HC, Chen CS, Yeh SD (2008) Seasonal variations in urinary calculi attacks and their association with climate: a population based study. J Urol 179(2):564–569. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2007.09.067 PubMedCrossRef

46.

Brikowski TH, Lotan Y, Pearle MS (2008) Climate-related increase in the prevalence of urolithiasis in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(28):9841–9846. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709652105 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

47.

Pearle MS, Goldfarb DS, Assimos DG, Curhan G, Denu-Ciocca CJ, Matlaga BR, Monga M, Penniston KL, Preminger GM, Turk TM, White JR, American Urological A (2014) Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline. J Urol 192(2):316–324. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2014.05.006 PubMedCrossRef

48.

Worcester EM, Coe FL (2008) Nephrolithiasis. Primary Care 35(2):369–391, vii. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2008.01.005

49.

SSaF C (2008) The metabolic basis for urolithiasis. Surgery 26(4):136–140

50.

Goldfarb DS (2009) In the clinic. Nephrolithiasis. Ann Intern Med 151 (3):ITC2PubMed

51.

Hall PM (2009) Nephrolithiasis: treatment, causes, and prevention. Clevel Clin J Med 76 (10):583–591. doi:10.3949/ccjm.76a.09043 CrossRef

52.

Fink HA, Akornor JW, Garimella PS, MacDonald R, Cutting A, Rutks IR, Monga M, Wilt TJ (2009) Diet, fluid, or supplements for secondary prevention of nephrolithiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Eur Urol 56(1):72–80. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2009.03.031 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

53.

Lopez M, Hoppe B (2010) History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis. Pediatr Nephrol 25(1):49–59. doi:10.1007/s00467-008-0960-5 PubMedCrossRef

54.

Romero V, Akpinar H, Assimos DG (2010) Kidney stones: a global picture of prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors. Rev Urol 12(2–3):e86–e96PubMedPubMedCentral

55.

Worcester EM, Coe FL (2010) Clinical practice. Calcium kidney stones. N Engl J Med 363(10):954–963. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1001011 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

56.

Sakhaee K, Maalouf NM, Sinnott B (2012) Clinical review. Kidney stones 2012: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(6):1847–1860. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-3492 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

57.

Taylor EN, Curhan GC (2008) Fructose consumption and the risk of kidney stones. Kidney Int 73(2):207–212. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5002588 PubMedCrossRef

58.

Saint-Elie DT, Patel PV, Healy KA, Solomon T, Pattaras JG, Qian J, Master VA, Ogan K (2010) The impact of income and education on dietary habits in stone formers. Urology 76(2):307–313. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.11.028 PubMedCrossRef

59.

Sorensen MD, Kahn AJ, Reiner AP, Tseng TY, Shikany JM, Wallace RB, Chi T, Wactawski-Wende J, Jackson RD, O’Sullivan MJ, Sadetsky N, Stoller ML, Group WHIW (2012) Impact of nutritional factors on incident kidney stone formation: a report from the WHI OS. J Urol 187(5):1645–1649. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2011.12.077 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

60.

Nouvenne A, Meschi T, Guerra A, Allegri F, Prati B, Borghi L (2008) Dietary treatment of nephrolithiasis. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab 5(2):135–141PubMedPubMedCentral

61.

Pak CY (2008) Medical stone management: 35 years of advances. J Urol 180(3):813–819. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2008.05.048 PubMedCrossRef

62.

Tracy CR, Pearle MS (2009) Update on the medical management of stone disease. Curr Opin Urol 19(2):200–204. doi:10.1097/MOU.0b013e328323a81d PubMedCrossRef

63.

Goldfarb DS (2009) Prospects for dietary therapy of recurrent nephrolithiasis. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 16(1):21–29. doi:10.1053/j.ackd.2008.10.010 PubMedCrossRef

64.

Sayer J MS, Thomas D (2010) The medical management of urolithiasis. Br J Med Surg Urol 3(3):87–95CrossRef

65.

Johri N, Cooper B, Robertson W, Choong S, Rickards D, Unwin R (2010) An update and practical guide to renal stone management. Nephron Clin Pract 116 (3):c159–171. doi:10.1159/000317196 PubMedCrossRef

66.

Ortiz-Alvarado O, Miyaoka R, Kriedberg C, Moeding A, Stessman M, Anderson JK, Monga M (2011) Impact of dietary counseling on urinary stone risk parameters in recurrent stone formers. J Endourol Endourol Soc 25(3):535–540. doi:10.1089/end.2010.0241 CrossRef

67.

Kurtz MP, Eisner BH (2011) Dietary therapy for patients with hypocitraturic nephrolithiasis. Nat Rev Urol 8(3):146–152. doi:10.1038/nrurol.2011.9 PubMedCrossRef

68.

Xu H, Zisman AL, Coe FL, Worcester EM (2013) Kidney stones: an update on current pharmacological management and future directions. Expert Opin Pharmacother 14(4):435–447. doi:10.1517/14656566.2013.775250 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

69.

Penniston KL, Nakada SY (2009) Effect of dietary changes on urinary oxalate excretion and calcium oxalate supersaturation in patients with hyperoxaluric stone formation. Urology 73(3):484–489. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2008.10.035 PubMedCrossRef

70.

Dussol B, Iovanna C, Rotily M, Morange S, Leonetti F, Dupuy P, Vazi A, Saveanu A, Loundou A, Berland Y (2008) A randomized trial of low-animal-protein or high-fiber diets for secondary prevention of calcium nephrolithiasis. Nephron Clin Pract 110 (3):c185–194. doi:10.1159/000167271 PubMedCrossRef

71.

Thomas E, von Unruh GE, Hesse A (2008) Influence of a low- and a high-oxalate vegetarian diet on intestinal oxalate absorption and urinary excretion. Eur J Clin Nutr 62(9):1090–1097. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602832 PubMedCrossRef

72.

Stoller ML, Chi T, Eisner BH, Shami G, Gentle DL (2009) Changes in urinary stone risk factors in hypocitraturic calcium oxalate stone formers treated with dietary sodium supplementation. J Urol 181(3):1140–1144. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2008.11.020 PubMedCrossRef

73.

Nouvenne A, Meschi T, Guerra A, Allegri F, Prati B, Fiaccadori E, Maggiore U, Borghi L (2009) Diet to reduce mild hyperoxaluria in patients with idiopathic calcium oxalate stone formation: a pilot study. Urology 73 (4):725–730, 730 e721. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2008.11.006

74.

Nouvenne A, Meschi T, Prati B, Guerra A, Allegri F, Vezzoli G, Soldati L, Gambaro G, Maggiore U, Borghi L (2010) Effects of a low-salt diet on idiopathic hypercalciuria in calcium-oxalate stone formers: a 3-mo randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 91(3):565–570. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28614 PubMedCrossRef

75.

Knight J, Assimos DG, Easter L, Holmes RP (2010) Metabolism of fructose to oxalate and glycolate. Horm Metab Res 42 (12):868–873. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1265145 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

76.

Lotan Y, Pearle MS (2011) Cost-effectiveness of primary prevention strategies for nephrolithiasis. J Urol 186(2):550–555. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2011.03.133 PubMedCrossRef

77.

Leaf DE, Korets R, Taylor EN, Tang J, Asplin JR, Goldfarb DS, Gupta M, Curhan GC (2012) Effect of vitamin D repletion on urinary calcium excretion among kidney stone formers. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol CJASN 7(5):829–834. doi:10.2215/CJN.11331111 PubMedCrossRef

78.

Eisner BH, Thavaseelan S, Sheth S, Haleblian G, Pareek G (2012) Relationship between serum vitamin D and 24-hour urine calcium in patients with nephrolithiasis. Urology 80(5):1007–1010. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2012.04.041 PubMedCrossRef

79.

Pearle MS, Asplin JR, Coe FL, Rodgers AL, Worcester EM (2008) Medical management of urolithiasis. In: Denstedt J, Khoury S (eds) Stone disease. Health Publications, Paris, pp 59–82

80.

Assimos DG (2008) Evaluation of the stone former. In: Denstedt J, Khoury S (eds) Stone disease. Health Publications, Paris, pp 33–36

81.

Goldfarb DTA, Curhan G (2008) Epidemiology of stone disease. In: Denstedt J, Khoury S (eds) Stone disease. Health Publications, Paris, pp 11–19

82.

Lotan Y, Buendia Jimenez I, Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Daudon M, Molinier L, Tack I, Nuijten MJ (2013) Increased water intake as a prevention strategy for recurrent urolithiasis: major impact of compliance on cost-effectiveness. J Urol 189(3):935–939. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2012.08.254 PubMedCrossRef

83.

Passman CM, Holmes RP, Knight J, Easter L, Pais V, Assimos DG (2009) Effect of soda consumption on urinary stone risk parameters. J Endourol Endourol Soc 23(3):347–350. doi:10.1089/end.2008.0225 CrossRef

84.

Baia Lda C, Baxmann AC, Moreira SR, Holmes RP, Heilberg IP (2012) Noncitrus alkaline fruit: a dietary alternative for the treatment of hypocitraturic stone formers. J Endourol Endourol Soc 26(9):1221–1226. doi:10.1089/end.2012.0092 CrossRef

85.

Tosukhowong P, Yachantha C, Sasivongsbhakdi T, Ratchanon S, Chaisawasdi S, Boonla C, Tungsanga K (2008) Citraturic, alkalinizing and antioxidative effects of limeade-based regimen in nephrolithiasis patients. Urol Res 36(3–4):149–155. doi:10.1007/s00240-008-0141-9 PubMedCrossRef

86.

Aras B, Kalfazade N, Tugcu V, Kemahli E, Ozbay B, Polat H, Tasci AI (2008) Can lemon juice be an alternative to potassium citrate in the treatment of urinary calcium stones in patients with hypocitraturia? A prospective randomized study. Urol Res 36(6):313–317. doi:10.1007/s00240-008-0152-6 PubMedCrossRef

87.

Rodgers AL, Webber D, de Charmoy R, Jackson GE, Ravenscroft N (2014) Malic acid supplementation increases urinary citrate excretion and urinary pH: implications for the potential treatment of calcium oxalate stone disease. J Endourol Endourol Soc 28(2):229–236. doi:10.1089/end.2013.0477 CrossRef

88.

Koff SG, Paquette EL, Cullen J, Gancarczyk KK, Tucciarone PR, Schenkman NS (2007) Comparison between lemonade and potassium citrate and impact on urine pH and 24-hour urine parameters in patients with kidney stone formation. Urology 69(6):1013–1016. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.02.008 PubMedCrossRef

89.

Kang DE, Sur RL, Haleblian GE, Fitzsimons NJ, Borawski KM, Preminger GM (2007) Long-term lemonade based dietary manipulation in patients with hypocitraturic nephrolithiasis. J Urol 177 (4):1358–1362. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.11.058 (discussion 1362; quiz 1591) PubMedCrossRef

90.

Curhan GC (2007) Epidemiology of stone disease. Urol Clin North Am 34(3):287–293. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2007.04.003 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

91.

Goldfarb DS, Arowojolu O (2013) Metabolic evaluation of first-time and recurrent stone formers. Urol Clin North Am 40(1):13–20. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2012.09.007 PubMedCrossRef

92.

Atan L, Andreoni C, Ortiz V, Silva EK, Pitta R, Atan F, Srougi M (2005) High kidney stone risk in men working in steel industry at hot temperatures. Urology 65(5):858–861PubMedCrossRef

93.

Ferraro PM, Bonello M, Frigo AC, D’Addessi A, Sturniolo A, Gambaro G (2011) Cadmium exposure and kidney stone formation in the general population—an analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III data. J Endourol Endourol Soc 25(5):875–880. doi:10.1089/end.2010.0572 CrossRef

94.

Elinder CG, Edling C, Lindberg E, Kågedal B, Vesterberg O (1985) Assessment of renal function in workers previously exposed to cadmium. Br J Ind Med 42(11):754–760PubMedPubMedCentral

95.

Trevisan A, Gardin C (2005) Nephrolithiasis in a worker with cadmium exposure in the past. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 78(8):670–672PubMedCrossRef

96.

Ding X, Zhang Q, Wei H, Zhang Z (2011) Cadmium-induced renal tubular dysfunction in a group of welders. Occup Med (Lond) 61 (4):277–279CrossRef

97.

Vitayavirasuk B, Junhom S, Tantisaeranee P (2005) Exposure to lead, cadmium and chromium among spray painters in automobile body repair shops. J Occup Health 47(6):518–522PubMedCrossRef

98.

Laerum E, Aarseth S (1985) Urolithiasis in railroad shopmen in relation to oxalic acid exposure at work. Scand J Work Environ Health 11(2):97–100PubMedCrossRef

99.

Tang X, Li N, Kang L, Dubois AM, Gong Z, Wu B, Lai G, Yang A, Ruan X, Gao H, Zhu G, Ge Y, Zhang J, Lin Z, Olson JR, Ren X (2013) Chronic low level trimethyltin exposure and the risk of developing nephrolithiasis. Occup Environ Med 70(8):561–567. doi:10.1136/oemed-2012-101261 PubMedCrossRef

100.

Resnick M, Pridgen DB, Goodman HO (1968) Genetic predisposition to formation of calcium oxalate renal calculi. N Engl J Med 278(24):1313–1318. doi:10.1056/NEJM196806132782403 PubMedCrossRef

101.

Coe FL, Parks JH, Moore ES (1979) Familial idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 300(7):337–340. doi:10.1056/NEJM197902153000703 PubMedCrossRef

102.

Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ (1997) Family history and risk of kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol JASN 8(10):1568–1573PubMed

103.

McGeown MG (1960) Heredity in renal stone disease. Clin Sci 19:465–471PubMed

104.

Stechman MJ, Loh NY, Thakker RV (2007) Genetics of hypercalciuric nephrolithiasis: renal stone disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1116:461–484. doi:10.1196/annals.1402.030 PubMedCrossRef

105.

Goldfarb DS, Fischer ME, Keich Y, Goldberg J (2005) A twin study of genetic and dietary influences on nephrolithiasis: a report from the Vietnam Era Twin (VET) Registry. Kidney Int 67(3):1053–1061. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00170.x PubMedCrossRef

106.

Hunter DJ, Lange M, Snieder H, MacGregor AJ, Swaminathan R, Thakker RV, Spector TD (2002) Genetic contribution to renal function and electrolyte balance: a twin study. Clin Sci (Lond) 103(3):259–265. doi:10.1042/cs1030259 CrossRef

107.

Monga M, Macias B, Groppo E, Hargens A (2006) Genetic heritability of urinary stone risk in identical twins. J Urol 175(6):2125–2128. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(06)00272-2 PubMedCrossRef

108.

Esposito T, Rendina D, Aloia A, Formicola D, Magliocca S, De Filippo G, Muscariello R, Mossetti G, Gianfrancesco F, Strazzullo P (2012) The melatonin receptor 1 A (MTNR1A) gene is associated with recurrent and idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis. Nephrol Dial Transp 27 (1):210–218. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfr216 CrossRef

109.

Hou J (2013) The role of claudin in hypercalciuric nephrolithiasis. Curr Urol Rep 14(1):5–12. doi:10.1007/s11934-012-0289-2 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

110.

Vezzoli G, Terranegra A, Aloia A, Arcidiacono T, Milanesi L, Mosca E, Mingione A, Spotti D, Cusi D, Hou J, Hendy GN, Soldati L, Network G, Paloschi V, Dogliotti E, Brasacchio C, Dell’Antonio G, Montorsi F, Bertini R, Bellinzoni P, Guazzoni G, Borghi L, Guerra A, Allegri F, Ticinesi A, Meschi T, Nouvenne A, Lupo A, Fabris A, Gambaro G, Strazzullo P, Rendina D, De Filippo G, Brandi ML, Croppi E, Cianferotti L, Trinchieri A, Caudarella R, Cupisti A, Anglani F, Del Prete D (2013) Decreased transcriptional activity of calcium-sensing receptor gene promoter 1 is associated with calcium nephrolithiasis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98(9):3839–3847. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-1834 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

111.

Vezzoli G, Terranegra A, Soldati L (2012) Calcium-sensing receptor gene polymorphisms in patients with calcium nephrolithiasis. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 21(4):355–361. doi:10.1097/MNH.0b013e3283542290 PubMedCrossRef

112.

Rungroj N, Sudtachat N, Nettuwakul C, Sawasdee N, Praditsap O, Jungtrakoon P, Sritippayawan S, Chuawattana D, Borvornpadungkitti S, Predanon C, Susaengrat W, Yenchitsomanus PT (2012) Association between human prothrombin variant (T165M) and kidney stone disease. PLoS One 7(9):e45533. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045533 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

113.

Vezzoli G, Terranegra A, Rainone F, Arcidiacono T, Cozzolino M, Aloia A, Dogliotti E, Cusi D, Soldati L (2011) Calcium-sensing receptor and calcium kidney stones. J Transl Med 9:201. doi:10.1186/1479-5876-9-201 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

114.

Vezzoli G, Scillitani A, Corbetta S, Terranegra A, Dogliotti E, Guarnieri V, Arcidiacono T, Paloschi V, Rainone F, Eller-Vainicher C, Borghi L, Nouvenne A, Guerra A, Meschi T, Allegri F, Cusi D, Spada A, Cole DE, Hendy GN, Spotti D, Soldati L (2011) Polymorphisms at the regulatory regions of the CASR gene influence stone risk in primary hyperparathyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 164(3):421–427. doi:10.1530/EJE-10-0915 PubMedCrossRef

115.

Telci D, Dogan AU, Ozbek E, Polat EC, Simsek A, Cakir SS, Yeloglu HO, Sahin F (2011) KLOTHO gene polymorphism of G395A is associated with kidney stones. Am J Nephrol 33(4):337–343. doi:10.1159/000325505 PubMedCrossRef

116.

Rungroj N, Sritippayawan S, Thongnoppakhun W, Paemanee A, Sawasdee N, Nettuwakul C, Sudtachat N, Ungsupravate D, Praihirunkit P, Chuawattana D, Akkarapatumwong V, Borvornpadungkitti S, Susaengrat W, Vasuvattakul S, Malasit P, Yenchitsomanus PT (2011) Prothrombin haplotype associated with kidney stone disease in Northeastern Thai patients. Urology 77 (1):249e217–223. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2010.07.494 CrossRef

117.

Chou YH, Woon PY, Chen WC, Hsu YW, Chang JM, Hwang DY, Chiu YC, Kuo HC, Chang WP, Hou MF, Liu ME, Chang JG, Chang WC (2011) A genetic polymorphism (rs17251221) in the calcium-sensing receptor gene (CASR) is associated with stone multiplicity in calcium nephrolithiasis. PLoS One 6(9):e25227. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025227 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

118.

Onaran M, Yilmaz A, Sen I, Ergun MA, Camtosun A, Kupeli B, Menevse S, Bozkirli I (2009) Heparan sulfate gene polymorphism in calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Urol Res 37(1):47–50. doi:10.1007/s00240-008-0167-z PubMedCrossRef

119.

Onaran M, Yilmaz A, Sen I, Ergun MA, Camtosun A, Kupeli B, Menevse S, Bozkirli I (2009) A HindIII polymorphism of fibronectin gene is associated with nephrolithiasis. Urology 74(5):1004–1007. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.05.010 PubMedCrossRef

120.

Monico CG, Milliner DS (2012) Genetic determinants of urolithiasis. Nat Rev Nephrol 8(3):151–162. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2011.211 CrossRef

121.

Elkoushy MA, Andonian S (2012) Characterization of patients with heterozygous cystinuria. Urology 80(4):795–799. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2012.04.062 PubMedCrossRef

122.

Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2005) Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA 293(4):455–462. doi:10.1001/jama.293.4.455 PubMedCrossRef

123.

Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ (1998) Body size and risk of kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol JASN 9(9):1645–1652PubMed

124.

Ekeruo WO, Tan YH, Young MD, Dahm P, Maloney ME, Mathias BJ, Albala DM, Preminger GM (2004) Metabolic risk factors and the impact of medical therapy on the management of nephrolithiasis in obese patients. J Urol 172(1):159–163. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000128574.50588.97 PubMedCrossRef

125.

Maalouf NM, Sakhaee K, Parks JH, Coe FL, Adams-Huet B, Pak CY (2004) Association of urinary pH with body weight in nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 65(4):1422–1425. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00522.x PubMedCrossRef

126.

Maalouf NM (2011) Metabolic syndrome and the genesis of uric acid stones. J Renal Nutr 21(1):128–131. doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2010.10.015 CrossRef

127.

Abate N, Chandalia M, Cabo-Chan AV Jr, Moe OW, Sakhaee K (2004) The metabolic syndrome and uric acid nephrolithiasis: novel features of renal manifestation of insulin resistance. Kidney Int 65(2):386–392. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00386.x PubMedCrossRef

128.

Bobulescu IA, Dubree M, Zhang J, McLeroy P, Moe OW (2008) Effect of renal lipid accumulation on proximal tubule Na+/H + exchange and ammonium secretion. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 294 (6):F1315–1322. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00550.2007 CrossRef

129.

Bobulescu IA, Dubree M, Zhang J, McLeroy P, Moe OW (2009) Reduction of renal triglyceride accumulation: effects on proximal tubule Na+/H + exchange and urinary acidification. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 297 (5):F1419-1426. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00177.2009 CrossRef

130.

Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2005) Diabetes mellitus and the risk of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 68(3):1230–1235. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00516.x PubMedCrossRef

131.

Kohjimoto Y, Sasaki Y, Iguchi M, Matsumura N, Inagaki T, Hara I (2013) Association of metabolic syndrome traits and severity of kidney stones: results from a nationwide survey on urolithiasis in Japan. Am J Kidney Dis 61(6):923–929. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2012.12.028 PubMedCrossRef

132.

Daudon M, Traxer O, Conort P, Lacour B, Jungers P (2006) Type 2 diabetes increases the risk for uric acid stones. J Am Soc Nephrol JASN 17(7):2026–2033. doi:10.1681/ASN.2006030262 PubMedCrossRef

133.

Cappuccio FP, Siani A, Barba G, Mellone MC, Russo L, Farinaro E, Trevisan M, Mancini M, Strazzullo P (1999) A prospective study of hypertension and the incidence of kidney stones in men. J Hypertens 17(7):1017–1022PubMedCrossRef

134.

Borghi L, Meschi T, Guerra A, Briganti A, Schianchi T, Allegri F, Novarini A (1999) Essential arterial hypertension and stone disease. Kidney Int 55(6):2397–2406. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.00483.x PubMedCrossRef

135.

Madore F, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Curhan GC (1998) Nephrolithiasis and risk of hypertension. Am J Hypertens 11(1 Pt 1):46–53PubMedCrossRef

136.

Madore F, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Curhan GC (1998) Nephrolithiasis and risk of hypertension in women. Am J Kidney Dis 32(5):802–807PubMedCrossRef

137.

Gillen DL, Coe FL, Worcester EM (2005) Nephrolithiasis and increased blood pressure among females with high body mass index. Am J Kidney Dis 46(2):263–269. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2005.04.030 PubMedCrossRef

138.

Taylor EN, Fung TT, Curhan GC (2009) DASH-style diet associates with reduced risk for kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol JASN 20(10):2253–2259. doi:10.1681/ASN.2009030276 PubMedCrossRef

139.

Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Mount DB, Curhan GC (2010) DASH-style diet and 24-hour urine composition. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol CJASN 5(12):2315–2322. doi:10.2215/CJN.04420510 PubMedCrossRef

140.

Kramer HM, Curhan G (2002) The association between gout and nephrolithiasis: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 1988–1994. Am J Kidney Dis 40(1):37–42. doi:10.1053/ajkd.2002.33911 PubMedCrossRef

141.

Kramer HJ, Choi HK, Atkinson K, Stampfer M, Curhan GC (2003) The association between gout and nephrolithiasis in men: The Health Professionals’ Follow-Up Study. Kidney Int 64(3):1022–1026. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.t01-2-00171.x PubMedCrossRef

142.

West B, Luke A, Durazo-Arvizu RA, Cao G, Shoham D, Kramer H (2008) Metabolic syndrome and self-reported history of kidney stones: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 1988–1994. Am J Kidney Dis 51(5):741–747. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.12.030 PubMedCrossRef

143.

Rendina D, Mossetti G, De Filippo G, Benvenuto D, Vivona CL, Imbroinise A, Zampa G, Ricchio S, Strazzullo P (2009) Association between metabolic syndrome and nephrolithiasis in an inpatient population in southern Italy: role of gender, hypertension and abdominal obesity. Nephrol Dial Transp 24 (3):900–906. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfn548 CrossRef

144.

Jeong IG, Kang T, Bang JK, Park J, Kim W, Hwang SS, Kim HK, Park HK (2011) Association between metabolic syndrome and the presence of kidney stones in a screened population. Am J Kidney Dis 58(3):383–388. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.03.021 PubMedCrossRef

145.

The World Bank (2014) Population, total. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2014&start=1960. Accessed 1 Oct 2016

146.

Mbonu O, Attah C, Ikeakor I (1984) Urolithiasis in an African population. Int Urol Nephrol 16(4):291–296PubMedCrossRef

147.

Ekwere PD (1995) Urinary calculous disease in south-eastern Nigeria. Afr J Med Med Sci 24(3):289–295PubMed

148.

Monu JU (1989) Pattern of urolithiasis in Benin City, Nigeria. J Natl Med Assoc 81(6):695–698PubMedPubMedCentral

149.

Esho JO (1976) Experience with urinary calculus disease in Nigerians as seen at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital. Nigerian Med J 6 (1):18–22

150.

Korkes F, Schor N, Heilberg IP (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in South America. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 61–66

151.

Korkes F, Silva II, Heilberg IP (2011) Costs for in hospital treatment of urinary lithiasis in the Brazilian public health system. Einstein (Säo Paulo) 9 (4):518–522

152.

Luo D, Li H, Wang K (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in China. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 53–59

153.

Chan SW, Ng CF, Man CW, Chung R, Li SK (2008) A report on a randomly sampled questionnaire survey about renal stone disease in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J 14(6):427–431PubMed

154.

Kim H, Jo MK, Kwak C, Park SK, Yoo KY, Kang D, Lee C (2002) Prevalence and epidemiologic characteristics of urolithiasis in Seoul, Korea. Urology 59(4):517–521PubMedCrossRef

155.

Yanagawa M, Kawamura J, Onishi T, Soga N, Kameda K, Sriboonlue P, Prasongwattana V, Borwornpadungkitti S (1997) Incidence of urolithiasis in northeast Thailand. Int J Urol 4(6):537–540PubMedCrossRef

156.

Safarinejad MR (2007) Adult urolithiasis in a population-based study in Iran: prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors. Urol Res 35(2):73–82. doi:10.1007/s00240-007-0084-6 PubMedCrossRef

157.

Basiri A, Shakhssalim N, Khoshdel AR, Ghahestani SM, Basiri H (2010) The demographic profile of urolithiasis in Iran: a nationwide epidemiologic study. Int Urol Nephrol 42(1):119–126. doi:10.1007/s11255-009-9588-z PubMedCrossRef

158.

Ketabchi AA, Aziziolahi GA (2008) Prevalence of symptomatic urinary calculi in Kerman, Iran. Urol J 5(3):156–160PubMed

159.

Singh PP, Barjatiya MK, Dhing S, Bhatnagar R, Kothari S, Dhar V (2001) Evidence suggesting that high intake of fluoride provokes nephrolithiasis in tribal populations. Urol Res 29(4):238–244PubMedCrossRef

160.

el-Reshaid K, Mughal H, Kapoor M (1997) Epidemiological profile, mineral metabolic pattern and crystallographic analysis of urolithiasis in Kuwait. Eur J Epidemiol 13(2):229–234PubMedCrossRef

161.

Lee MC, Bariol SV (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in Australia. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 73–76

162.

Davidson PJ, Sheerin IG, Frampton C (2009) Renal stone disease in Christchurch, New Zealand. Part 1: presentation and epidemiology. N Z Med J 122(1297):49–56PubMed

163.

Sanchez-Martin FM, Millan Rodriguez F, Esquena Fernandez S, Segarra Tomas J, Rousaud Baron F, Martinez-Rodriguez R, Villavicencio Mavrich H (2007) Incidence and prevalence of published studies about urolithiasis in Spain. A review. Actas Urol Esp 31(5):511–520PubMedCrossRef

164.

Hesse A, Brandle E, Wilbert D, Kohrmann KU, Alken P (2003) Study on the prevalence and incidence of urolithiasis in Germany comparing the years 1979 vs. 2000. Eur Urol 44(6):709–713PubMedCrossRef

165.

166.

Indridason OS, Birgisson S, Edvardsson VO, Sigvaldason H, Sigfusson N, Palsson R (2006) Epidemiology of kidney stones in Iceland A population-based study 1. Scand J Urol Nephrol 40(3):215–220PubMedCrossRef

167.

Ljunghall S (1987) Incidence of upper urinary tract stones. Miner Electrolyte Metab 13(4):220–227PubMed

168.

Muslumanoglu AY, Binbay M, Yuruk E, Akman T, Tepeler A, Esen T, Tefekli AH (2011) Updated epidemiologic study of urolithiasis in Turkey. I: Changing characteristics of urolithiasis. Urol Res 39(4):309–314. doi:10.1007/s00240-010-0346-6 PubMedCrossRef

169.

Novikov A, Nazarov T, Startsev VY (2012) Epidemiology of stone disease in the Russian Federation and Post Soviet Era. In: Talati J, Tiselius HG, Albala DM, Ye Z (eds) Urolithiasis, basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 97–105

Title: Epidemiology of stone disease across the world
Authors: Igor Sorokin
Charalampos Mamoulakis
Katsuhito Miyazawa
Allen Rodgers
Jamsheer Talati
Yair Lotan
Publication date: 01-09-2017
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: World Journal of Urology / Issue 9/2017
Print ISSN: 0724-4983
Electronic ISSN: 1433-8726
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-017-2008-6

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Epidemiology of stone disease across the world

Abstract

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 9/2017

Urolithiasis: evaluation, dietary factors, and medical management: an update of the 2014 SIU-ICUD international consultation on stone disease

SIU Newsletter - September 2017

Integration of MRI to clinical nomogram for predicting pathological stage before radical prostatectomy: bias in the prediction model

Update of the ICUD-SIU consultation on stone technology behind ureteroscopy

Update from third international consultation on stone disease

Antibiotic use and the prevention and management of infectious complications in stone disease