Foreword

Excerpt

Kidney stone formation is a highly prevalent disease with recurrence rates estimated up to 50 % within the first 5 years after the initial stone episode [4]. The risk of recurrence increases with each new episode [1], and nearly all stone formers are expected to form another stone provided they live long enough [2]. Kidney stone recurrence affects both genders of all ages and ethnicities, and the costs for stone disease care and treatments, estimated at over $10 billion in 2006 in United States, are projected to continue to increase. Current medical preventative therapies reduce stone risk by 50 % over short (2–3 years) duration [7, 13]. Furthermore, new epidemiological studies link stone formation to the development of hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and even end-stage renal disease, while other highly prevalent medical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, are considered risk factors for stone formation [3, 5, 6, 8]. …