Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Neurocritical Care 1/2012

01-09-2012 | Review Article

Emergency Neurological Life Support: Airway, Ventilation, and Sedation

Authors: David B. Seder, Richard R. Riker, Andy Jagoda, Wade S. Smith, Scott D. Weingart

Published in: Neurocritical Care | Special Issue 1/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Airway management is central to the resuscitation of the neurologically ill. These patients often have evolving processes that threaten the airway and adequate ventilation. Therefore, airway, ventilation, and sedation were chosen as an Emergency Neurological Life Support (ENLS) protocol. Reviewed topics include airway management; the decision to intubate; when and how to intubate with attention to cardiovascular status; mechanical ventilation settings; and the use of sedation, including how to select sedative agents based on the patient’s neurological status.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
go back to reference Davis DP, Dunford JV, Ochs M, Park K, Hoyt DB. The use of quantitative end-tidal capnometry to avoid inadvertent severe hyperventilation in patients with head injury after paramedic rapid sequence intubation. J Trauma. 2004;56:808–14.CrossRefPubMed Davis DP, Dunford JV, Ochs M, Park K, Hoyt DB. The use of quantitative end-tidal capnometry to avoid inadvertent severe hyperventilation in patients with head injury after paramedic rapid sequence intubation. J Trauma. 2004;56:808–14.CrossRefPubMed
2.
go back to reference Coplin WM, Pierson DJ, Cooley KD, Newell DW, Rubenfeld GD. Implications of extubation delay in brain-injured patients meeting standard weaning criteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:1530–6.PubMed Coplin WM, Pierson DJ, Cooley KD, Newell DW, Rubenfeld GD. Implications of extubation delay in brain-injured patients meeting standard weaning criteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:1530–6.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Walls RM, Murphy MF. Manual of emergency airway management. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008. Walls RM, Murphy MF. Manual of emergency airway management. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008.
4.
go back to reference Sagarin MJ, Barton ED, Chng YM, Walls RM. National Emergency Airway Registry I. Airway management by US and Canadian emergency medicine residents: a multicenter analysis of more than 6,000 endotracheal intubation attempts. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46:328–36.CrossRefPubMed Sagarin MJ, Barton ED, Chng YM, Walls RM. National Emergency Airway Registry I. Airway management by US and Canadian emergency medicine residents: a multicenter analysis of more than 6,000 endotracheal intubation attempts. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46:328–36.CrossRefPubMed
5.
go back to reference Li J, Murphy-Lavoie H, Bugas C, Martinez J, Preston C. Complications of emergency intubation with and without paralysis. Am J Emerg Med. 1999;17:141–3.CrossRefPubMed Li J, Murphy-Lavoie H, Bugas C, Martinez J, Preston C. Complications of emergency intubation with and without paralysis. Am J Emerg Med. 1999;17:141–3.CrossRefPubMed
6.
go back to reference Sakles JC, Laurin EG, Rantapaa AA, Panacek EA. Airway management in the emergency department: a one-year study of 610 tracheal intubations. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31:325–32.CrossRefPubMed Sakles JC, Laurin EG, Rantapaa AA, Panacek EA. Airway management in the emergency department: a one-year study of 610 tracheal intubations. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31:325–32.CrossRefPubMed
8.
go back to reference Bedford RF, Persing JA, Pobereskin L, Butler A. Lidocaine or thiopental for rapid control of intracranial hypertension? Anesth Analg. 1980;59:435–7.PubMed Bedford RF, Persing JA, Pobereskin L, Butler A. Lidocaine or thiopental for rapid control of intracranial hypertension? Anesth Analg. 1980;59:435–7.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Gabriel EJ, Ghajar J, Jagoda A, et al. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2002;19:111–74.CrossRefPubMed Gabriel EJ, Ghajar J, Jagoda A, et al. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2002;19:111–74.CrossRefPubMed
10.
go back to reference Weingart S. Additional thoughts on the controversy of lidocaine administration before rapid sequence intubation in patients with traumatic brain injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:353.CrossRefPubMed Weingart S. Additional thoughts on the controversy of lidocaine administration before rapid sequence intubation in patients with traumatic brain injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:353.CrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Salhi B, Stettner E. In defense of the use of lidocaine in rapid sequence intubation. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:84–6.CrossRefPubMed Salhi B, Stettner E. In defense of the use of lidocaine in rapid sequence intubation. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:84–6.CrossRefPubMed
12.
go back to reference Feng CK, Chan KH, Liu KN, Or CH, Lee TY. A comparison of lidocaine, fentanyl, and esmolol for attenuation of cardiovascular response to laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin. 1996;34:61–7.PubMed Feng CK, Chan KH, Liu KN, Or CH, Lee TY. A comparison of lidocaine, fentanyl, and esmolol for attenuation of cardiovascular response to laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin. 1996;34:61–7.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Reynolds SF, Heffner J. Airway management of the critically ill patient: rapid-sequence intubation. Chest. 2005;127:1397–412.CrossRefPubMed Reynolds SF, Heffner J. Airway management of the critically ill patient: rapid-sequence intubation. Chest. 2005;127:1397–412.CrossRefPubMed
14.
go back to reference Bergen JM, Smith DC. A review of etomidate for rapid sequence intubation in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:221–30.CrossRefPubMed Bergen JM, Smith DC. A review of etomidate for rapid sequence intubation in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:221–30.CrossRefPubMed
15.
go back to reference Moss E, Powell D, Gibson RM, McDowall DG. Effect of etomidate on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Br J Anaesth. 1979;51:347–52.CrossRefPubMed Moss E, Powell D, Gibson RM, McDowall DG. Effect of etomidate on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Br J Anaesth. 1979;51:347–52.CrossRefPubMed
16.
go back to reference Hug CC Jr, McLeskey CH, Nahrwold ML, et al. Hemodynamic effects of propofol: data from over 25,000 patients. Anesth Analg. 1993;77:S21–9.PubMed Hug CC Jr, McLeskey CH, Nahrwold ML, et al. Hemodynamic effects of propofol: data from over 25,000 patients. Anesth Analg. 1993;77:S21–9.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Bar-Joseph G, Guilburd Y, Tamir A, Guilburd JN. Effectiveness of ketamine in decreasing intracranial pressure in children with intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4:40–6.CrossRefPubMed Bar-Joseph G, Guilburd Y, Tamir A, Guilburd JN. Effectiveness of ketamine in decreasing intracranial pressure in children with intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4:40–6.CrossRefPubMed
18.
go back to reference Langsjo JW, Maksimow A, Salmi E, et al. S-ketamine anesthesia increases cerebral blood flow in excess of the metabolic needs in humans. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:258–68.CrossRefPubMed Langsjo JW, Maksimow A, Salmi E, et al. S-ketamine anesthesia increases cerebral blood flow in excess of the metabolic needs in humans. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:258–68.CrossRefPubMed
19.
go back to reference Bourgoin A, Albanese J, Wereszczynski N, Charbit M, Vialet R, Martin C. Safety of sedation with ketamine in severe head injury patients: comparison with sufentanil. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:711–7.CrossRefPubMed Bourgoin A, Albanese J, Wereszczynski N, Charbit M, Vialet R, Martin C. Safety of sedation with ketamine in severe head injury patients: comparison with sufentanil. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:711–7.CrossRefPubMed
20.
go back to reference Kovarik WD, Mayberg TS, Lam AM, Mathisen TL, Winn HR. Succinylcholine does not change intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow velocity, or the electroencephalogram in patients with neurologic injury. Anesth Analg. 1994;78:469–73.CrossRefPubMed Kovarik WD, Mayberg TS, Lam AM, Mathisen TL, Winn HR. Succinylcholine does not change intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow velocity, or the electroencephalogram in patients with neurologic injury. Anesth Analg. 1994;78:469–73.CrossRefPubMed
21.
go back to reference Martyn JA, Richtsfeld M. Succinylcholine-induced hyperkalemia in acquired pathologic states: etiologic factors and molecular mechanisms. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:158–69.CrossRefPubMed Martyn JA, Richtsfeld M. Succinylcholine-induced hyperkalemia in acquired pathologic states: etiologic factors and molecular mechanisms. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:158–69.CrossRefPubMed
22.
go back to reference Seder DB, Mayer SA. Critical care management of subarachnoid hemorrhage and ischemic stroke. Clin Chest Med. 2009;30:103–22, viii–ix. Seder DB, Mayer SA. Critical care management of subarachnoid hemorrhage and ischemic stroke. Clin Chest Med. 2009;30:103–22, viii–ix.
23.
go back to reference Chesnut RM, Marshall SB, Piek J, Blunt BA, Klauber MR, Marshall LF. Early and late systemic hypotension as a frequent and fundamental source of cerebral ischemia following severe brain injury in the Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1993;59:121–5. Chesnut RM, Marshall SB, Piek J, Blunt BA, Klauber MR, Marshall LF. Early and late systemic hypotension as a frequent and fundamental source of cerebral ischemia following severe brain injury in the Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1993;59:121–5.
24.
go back to reference Prough DS, Lang J. Therapy of patients with head injuries: key parameters for management. J Trauma. 1997;42:S10–8.CrossRefPubMed Prough DS, Lang J. Therapy of patients with head injuries: key parameters for management. J Trauma. 1997;42:S10–8.CrossRefPubMed
25.
go back to reference Trzeciak S, Jones AE, Kilgannon JH, et al. Significance of arterial hypotension after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2895–903. quiz 904.CrossRefPubMed Trzeciak S, Jones AE, Kilgannon JH, et al. Significance of arterial hypotension after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2895–903. quiz 904.CrossRefPubMed
26.
go back to reference Kilgannon JH, Roberts BW, Reihl LR, et al. Early arterial hypotension is common in the post-cardiac arrest syndrome and associated with increased in-hospital mortality. Resuscitation. 2008;79:410–6.CrossRefPubMed Kilgannon JH, Roberts BW, Reihl LR, et al. Early arterial hypotension is common in the post-cardiac arrest syndrome and associated with increased in-hospital mortality. Resuscitation. 2008;79:410–6.CrossRefPubMed
27.
go back to reference Dumont TM, Visioni AJ, Rughani AI, Tranmer BI, Crookes B. Inappropriate prehospital ventilation in severe traumatic brain injury increases in-hospital mortality. J Neurotrauma. 2010;27:1233–41.CrossRefPubMed Dumont TM, Visioni AJ, Rughani AI, Tranmer BI, Crookes B. Inappropriate prehospital ventilation in severe traumatic brain injury increases in-hospital mortality. J Neurotrauma. 2010;27:1233–41.CrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Davis DP, Idris AH, Sise MJ, et al. Early ventilation and outcome in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1202–8.CrossRefPubMed Davis DP, Idris AH, Sise MJ, et al. Early ventilation and outcome in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1202–8.CrossRefPubMed
29.
go back to reference Davis DP, Stern J, Sise MJ, Hoyt DB. A follow-up analysis of factors associated with head-injury mortality after paramedic rapid sequence intubation. J Trauma. 2005;59:486–90.CrossRefPubMed Davis DP, Stern J, Sise MJ, Hoyt DB. A follow-up analysis of factors associated with head-injury mortality after paramedic rapid sequence intubation. J Trauma. 2005;59:486–90.CrossRefPubMed
30.
go back to reference Coles JP, Fryer TD, Coleman MR, et al. Hyperventilation following head injury: effect on ischemic burden and cerebral oxidative metabolism. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:568–78.CrossRefPubMed Coles JP, Fryer TD, Coleman MR, et al. Hyperventilation following head injury: effect on ischemic burden and cerebral oxidative metabolism. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:568–78.CrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Coles JP, Minhas PS, Fryer TD, et al. Effect of hyperventilation on cerebral blood flow in traumatic head injury: clinical relevance and monitoring correlates. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1950–9.CrossRefPubMed Coles JP, Minhas PS, Fryer TD, et al. Effect of hyperventilation on cerebral blood flow in traumatic head injury: clinical relevance and monitoring correlates. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1950–9.CrossRefPubMed
32.
go back to reference Diringer MN, Videen TO, Yundt K, et al. Regional cerebrovascular and metabolic effects of hyperventilation after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:103–8.CrossRefPubMed Diringer MN, Videen TO, Yundt K, et al. Regional cerebrovascular and metabolic effects of hyperventilation after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:103–8.CrossRefPubMed
33.
go back to reference Walsh BK, Crotwell DN, Restrepo RD. Capnography/Capnometry during mechanical ventilation: 2011. Respir Care. 2011;56:503–9.CrossRefPubMed Walsh BK, Crotwell DN, Restrepo RD. Capnography/Capnometry during mechanical ventilation: 2011. Respir Care. 2011;56:503–9.CrossRefPubMed
34.
go back to reference Seneviratne J, Mandrekar J, Wijdicks EF, Rabinstein AA. Noninvasive ventilation in myasthenic crisis. Arch Neurol. 2008;65:54–8.CrossRefPubMed Seneviratne J, Mandrekar J, Wijdicks EF, Rabinstein AA. Noninvasive ventilation in myasthenic crisis. Arch Neurol. 2008;65:54–8.CrossRefPubMed
35.
go back to reference Flandreau G, Bourdin G, Leray V, et al. Management and long-term outcome of patients with chronic neuromuscular disease admitted to the intensive care unit for acute respiratory failure: a single-center retrospective study. Respir Care. 2011;56:953–60.CrossRefPubMed Flandreau G, Bourdin G, Leray V, et al. Management and long-term outcome of patients with chronic neuromuscular disease admitted to the intensive care unit for acute respiratory failure: a single-center retrospective study. Respir Care. 2011;56:953–60.CrossRefPubMed
36.
go back to reference Piastra M, Antonelli M, Caresta E, Chiaretti A, Polidori G, Conti G. Noninvasive ventilation in childhood acute neuromuscular respiratory failure: a pilot study. Respiration. 2006;73:791–8.CrossRefPubMed Piastra M, Antonelli M, Caresta E, Chiaretti A, Polidori G, Conti G. Noninvasive ventilation in childhood acute neuromuscular respiratory failure: a pilot study. Respiration. 2006;73:791–8.CrossRefPubMed
37.
go back to reference Abel M, Eisenkraft JB. Anesthetic implications of myasthenia gravis. Mt Sinai J Med. 2002;69:31–7.PubMed Abel M, Eisenkraft JB. Anesthetic implications of myasthenia gravis. Mt Sinai J Med. 2002;69:31–7.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Rice MJ, Mancuso AA, Gibbs C, Morey TE, Gravenstein N, Deitte LA. Cricoid pressure results in compression of the postcricoid hypopharynx: the esophageal position is irrelevant. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:1546–52.CrossRefPubMed Rice MJ, Mancuso AA, Gibbs C, Morey TE, Gravenstein N, Deitte LA. Cricoid pressure results in compression of the postcricoid hypopharynx: the esophageal position is irrelevant. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:1546–52.CrossRefPubMed
39.
go back to reference Ellis DY, Harris T, Zideman D. Cricoid pressure in emergency department rapid sequence tracheal intubations: a risk-benefit analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:653–65.CrossRefPubMed Ellis DY, Harris T, Zideman D. Cricoid pressure in emergency department rapid sequence tracheal intubations: a risk-benefit analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:653–65.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Grande CM, Barton CR, Stene JK. Appropriate techniques for airway management of emergency patients with suspected spinal cord injury. Anesth Analg. 1988;67:714–5.CrossRefPubMed Grande CM, Barton CR, Stene JK. Appropriate techniques for airway management of emergency patients with suspected spinal cord injury. Anesth Analg. 1988;67:714–5.CrossRefPubMed
41.
go back to reference Koenig MA, Bryan M, Lewin JL 3rd, Mirski MA, Geocadin RG, Stevens RD. Reversal of transtentorial herniation with hypertonic saline. Neurology. 2008;70:1023–9.CrossRefPubMed Koenig MA, Bryan M, Lewin JL 3rd, Mirski MA, Geocadin RG, Stevens RD. Reversal of transtentorial herniation with hypertonic saline. Neurology. 2008;70:1023–9.CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Qureshi AI, Geocadin RG, Suarez JI, Ulatowski JA. Long-term outcome after medical reversal of transtentorial herniation in patients with supratentorial mass lesions. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:1556–64.CrossRefPubMed Qureshi AI, Geocadin RG, Suarez JI, Ulatowski JA. Long-term outcome after medical reversal of transtentorial herniation in patients with supratentorial mass lesions. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:1556–64.CrossRefPubMed
43.
go back to reference Oertel M, Kelly DF, Lee JH, et al. Efficacy of hyperventilation, blood pressure elevation, and metabolic suppression therapy in controlling intracranial pressure after head injury. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:1045–53.CrossRefPubMed Oertel M, Kelly DF, Lee JH, et al. Efficacy of hyperventilation, blood pressure elevation, and metabolic suppression therapy in controlling intracranial pressure after head injury. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:1045–53.CrossRefPubMed
44.
go back to reference Badjatia N, Strongilis E, Prescutti M, et al. Metabolic benefits of surface counter warming during therapeutic temperature modulation. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1893–7.CrossRefPubMed Badjatia N, Strongilis E, Prescutti M, et al. Metabolic benefits of surface counter warming during therapeutic temperature modulation. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1893–7.CrossRefPubMed
45.
go back to reference Wood EG, Go-Wingkun J, Luisiri A, Aceto T Jr. Symptomatic cerebral swelling complicating diabetic ketoacidosis documented by intraventricular pressure monitoring: survival without neurologic sequela. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1990;6:285–8.CrossRefPubMed Wood EG, Go-Wingkun J, Luisiri A, Aceto T Jr. Symptomatic cerebral swelling complicating diabetic ketoacidosis documented by intraventricular pressure monitoring: survival without neurologic sequela. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1990;6:285–8.CrossRefPubMed
46.
go back to reference Balan IS, Fiskum G, Hazelton J, Cotto-Cumba C, Rosenthal RE. Oximetry-guided reoxygenation improves neurological outcome after experimental cardiac arrest. Stroke. 2006;37:3008–13.CrossRefPubMed Balan IS, Fiskum G, Hazelton J, Cotto-Cumba C, Rosenthal RE. Oximetry-guided reoxygenation improves neurological outcome after experimental cardiac arrest. Stroke. 2006;37:3008–13.CrossRefPubMed
47.
go back to reference Brucken A, Kaab AB, Kottmann K, et al. Reducing the duration of 100 % oxygen ventilation in the early reperfusion period after cardiopulmonary resuscitation decreases striatal brain damage. Resuscitation. 2010;81:1698–703.CrossRefPubMed Brucken A, Kaab AB, Kottmann K, et al. Reducing the duration of 100 % oxygen ventilation in the early reperfusion period after cardiopulmonary resuscitation decreases striatal brain damage. Resuscitation. 2010;81:1698–703.CrossRefPubMed
48.
go back to reference Davis DP, Meade W, Sise MJ, et al. Both hypoxemia and extreme hyperoxemia may be detrimental in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2009;26:2217–23.CrossRefPubMed Davis DP, Meade W, Sise MJ, et al. Both hypoxemia and extreme hyperoxemia may be detrimental in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2009;26:2217–23.CrossRefPubMed
49.
go back to reference Kilgannon JH, Jones AE, Shapiro NI, et al. Association between arterial hyperoxia following resuscitation from cardiac arrest and in-hospital mortality. JAMA. 2010;303:2165–71.CrossRefPubMed Kilgannon JH, Jones AE, Shapiro NI, et al. Association between arterial hyperoxia following resuscitation from cardiac arrest and in-hospital mortality. JAMA. 2010;303:2165–71.CrossRefPubMed
50.
go back to reference Kilgannon JH, Jones AE, Parrillo JE, et al. Relationship between supranormal oxygen tension and outcome after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2011;123:2717–22.CrossRefPubMed Kilgannon JH, Jones AE, Parrillo JE, et al. Relationship between supranormal oxygen tension and outcome after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2011;123:2717–22.CrossRefPubMed
51.
go back to reference Bellomo R, Bailey M, Eastwood GM, et al. Arterial hyperoxia and in-hospital mortality after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care. 2011;15:R90.CrossRefPubMed Bellomo R, Bailey M, Eastwood GM, et al. Arterial hyperoxia and in-hospital mortality after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care. 2011;15:R90.CrossRefPubMed
52.
go back to reference Peberdy MA, Callaway CW, Neumar RW, et al. Part 9: post-cardiac arrest care: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2010;122:S768–86.CrossRefPubMed Peberdy MA, Callaway CW, Neumar RW, et al. Part 9: post-cardiac arrest care: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2010;122:S768–86.CrossRefPubMed
53.
go back to reference Menchem CC. Pulse Oximetry. In: Basow DS, editor. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Publishing; 2012. Menchem CC. Pulse Oximetry. In: Basow DS, editor. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Publishing; 2012.
54.
go back to reference Helm M, Schuster R, Hauke J, Lampl L. Tight control of prehospital ventilation by capnography in major trauma victims. Br J Anaesth. 2003;90:327–32.CrossRefPubMed Helm M, Schuster R, Hauke J, Lampl L. Tight control of prehospital ventilation by capnography in major trauma victims. Br J Anaesth. 2003;90:327–32.CrossRefPubMed
55.
go back to reference Hardman JG, Aitkenhead AR. Estimating alveolar dead space from the arterial to end-tidal CO(2) gradient: a modeling analysis. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1846–51.CrossRefPubMed Hardman JG, Aitkenhead AR. Estimating alveolar dead space from the arterial to end-tidal CO(2) gradient: a modeling analysis. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1846–51.CrossRefPubMed
56.
go back to reference Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1332–47.PubMed Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1332–47.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301–8. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301–8.
58.
go back to reference Petridis AK, Doukas A, Kienke S, et al. The effect of lung-protective permissive hypercapnia in intracerebral pressure in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and ARDS. A retrospective study. Acta Neurochir. 2010;152:2143–5.CrossRef Petridis AK, Doukas A, Kienke S, et al. The effect of lung-protective permissive hypercapnia in intracerebral pressure in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and ARDS. A retrospective study. Acta Neurochir. 2010;152:2143–5.CrossRef
59.
go back to reference Bennett SS, Graffagnino C, Borel CO, James ML. Use of high frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2007;7:221–6.CrossRefPubMed Bennett SS, Graffagnino C, Borel CO, James ML. Use of high frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2007;7:221–6.CrossRefPubMed
60.
go back to reference Reinprecht A, Greher M, Wolfsberger S, Dietrich W, Illievich UM, Gruber A. Prone position in subarachnoid hemorrhage patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: effects on cerebral tissue oxygenation and intracranial pressure. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1831–8.CrossRefPubMed Reinprecht A, Greher M, Wolfsberger S, Dietrich W, Illievich UM, Gruber A. Prone position in subarachnoid hemorrhage patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: effects on cerebral tissue oxygenation and intracranial pressure. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1831–8.CrossRefPubMed
61.
go back to reference Caricato A, Conti G, Della Corte F, et al. Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. J Trauma. 2005;58:571–6.CrossRefPubMed Caricato A, Conti G, Della Corte F, et al. Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. J Trauma. 2005;58:571–6.CrossRefPubMed
62.
go back to reference Muench E, Bauhuf C, Roth H, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain tissue oxygenation. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:2367–72.CrossRefPubMed Muench E, Bauhuf C, Roth H, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain tissue oxygenation. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:2367–72.CrossRefPubMed
63.
go back to reference Koutsoukou A, Perraki H, Raftopoulou A, et al. Respiratory mechanics in brain-damaged patients. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32:1947–54.CrossRefPubMed Koutsoukou A, Perraki H, Raftopoulou A, et al. Respiratory mechanics in brain-damaged patients. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32:1947–54.CrossRefPubMed
64.
go back to reference Samaniego EA, Mlynash M, Caulfield AF, Eyngorn I, Wijman CA. Sedation confounds outcome prediction in cardiac arrest survivors treated with hypothermia. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:113–9.CrossRefPubMed Samaniego EA, Mlynash M, Caulfield AF, Eyngorn I, Wijman CA. Sedation confounds outcome prediction in cardiac arrest survivors treated with hypothermia. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:113–9.CrossRefPubMed
65.
go back to reference Riker RR, Fraser GL. Altering intensive care sedation paradigms to improve patient outcomes. Anesthesiol Clin. 2011;29:663–74.CrossRefPubMed Riker RR, Fraser GL. Altering intensive care sedation paradigms to improve patient outcomes. Anesthesiol Clin. 2011;29:663–74.CrossRefPubMed
66.
go back to reference Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:119–41.CrossRefPubMed Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:119–41.CrossRefPubMed
67.
go back to reference Fraser GL, Riker RR, Prato BS, Wilkins ML. The frequency and cost of patient-initiated device removal in the ICU. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21:1–6.CrossRefPubMed Fraser GL, Riker RR, Prato BS, Wilkins ML. The frequency and cost of patient-initiated device removal in the ICU. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21:1–6.CrossRefPubMed
68.
go back to reference Skoglund K, Enblad P, Marklund N. Effects of the neurological wake-up test on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in brain-injured patients. Neurocrit Care. 2009;11:135–42.CrossRefPubMed Skoglund K, Enblad P, Marklund N. Effects of the neurological wake-up test on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in brain-injured patients. Neurocrit Care. 2009;11:135–42.CrossRefPubMed
69.
go back to reference Brain Trauma F, American Association of Neurological S, Congress of Neurological S, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. VI. Indications for intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24(Suppl 1):S37–44. Brain Trauma F, American Association of Neurological S, Congress of Neurological S, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. VI. Indications for intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24(Suppl 1):S37–44.
70.
go back to reference Citerio G, Cormio M. Sedation in neurointensive care: advances in understanding and practice. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:120–6.CrossRefPubMed Citerio G, Cormio M. Sedation in neurointensive care: advances in understanding and practice. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:120–6.CrossRefPubMed
71.
go back to reference Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R, et al. Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2609–15.CrossRefPubMed Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R, et al. Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2609–15.CrossRefPubMed
72.
go back to reference Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1471–7.CrossRefPubMed Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1471–7.CrossRefPubMed
73.
go back to reference Mehta S, Burry L, Martinez-Motta JC, et al. A randomized trial of daily awakening in critically ill patients managed with a sedation protocol: a pilot trial. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:2092–9.CrossRefPubMed Mehta S, Burry L, Martinez-Motta JC, et al. A randomized trial of daily awakening in critically ill patients managed with a sedation protocol: a pilot trial. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:2092–9.CrossRefPubMed
74.
go back to reference Treggiari MM, Romand JA, Yanez ND, et al. Randomized trial of light versus deep sedation on mental health after critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2527–34.CrossRefPubMed Treggiari MM, Romand JA, Yanez ND, et al. Randomized trial of light versus deep sedation on mental health after critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2527–34.CrossRefPubMed
75.
go back to reference Jones C, Backman C, Capuzzo M, Flaatten H, Rylander C, Griffiths RD. Precipitants of post-traumatic stress disorder following intensive care: a hypothesis generating study of diversity in care. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:978–85.CrossRefPubMed Jones C, Backman C, Capuzzo M, Flaatten H, Rylander C, Griffiths RD. Precipitants of post-traumatic stress disorder following intensive care: a hypothesis generating study of diversity in care. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:978–85.CrossRefPubMed
76.
go back to reference Hopkins RO, Jackson JC. Long-term neurocognitive function after critical illness. Chest. 2006;130:869–78.CrossRefPubMed Hopkins RO, Jackson JC. Long-term neurocognitive function after critical illness. Chest. 2006;130:869–78.CrossRefPubMed
77.
go back to reference Strom T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;375:475–80.CrossRefPubMed Strom T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;375:475–80.CrossRefPubMed
78.
go back to reference Spies C, Macguill M, Heymann A, et al. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study comparing remifentanil with fentanyl in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:469–76.CrossRefPubMed Spies C, Macguill M, Heymann A, et al. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study comparing remifentanil with fentanyl in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:469–76.CrossRefPubMed
79.
go back to reference Al MJ, Hakkaart L, Tan SS, Bakker J. Cost-consequence analysis of remifentanil-based analgo-sedation vs. conventional analgesia and sedation for patients on mechanical ventilation in the Netherlands. Crit Care. 2010;14:R195.CrossRefPubMed Al MJ, Hakkaart L, Tan SS, Bakker J. Cost-consequence analysis of remifentanil-based analgo-sedation vs. conventional analgesia and sedation for patients on mechanical ventilation in the Netherlands. Crit Care. 2010;14:R195.CrossRefPubMed
80.
go back to reference Khalifezadeh A, Safazadeh S, Mehrabi T, Mansour BA. Reviewing the effect of nursing interventions on delirious patients admitted to intensive care unit of neurosurgery ward in Al-Zahra Hospital, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2011;16:106–12.PubMed Khalifezadeh A, Safazadeh S, Mehrabi T, Mansour BA. Reviewing the effect of nursing interventions on delirious patients admitted to intensive care unit of neurosurgery ward in Al-Zahra Hospital, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2011;16:106–12.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Kline AE, Hoffman AN, Cheng JP, Zafonte RD, Massucci JL. Chronic administration of antipsychotics impede behavioral recovery after experimental traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett. 2008;448:263–7.CrossRefPubMed Kline AE, Hoffman AN, Cheng JP, Zafonte RD, Massucci JL. Chronic administration of antipsychotics impede behavioral recovery after experimental traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett. 2008;448:263–7.CrossRefPubMed
82.
go back to reference Hoffman AN, Cheng JP, Zafonte RD, Kline AE. Administration of haloperidol and risperidone after neurobehavioral testing hinders the recovery of traumatic brain injury-induced deficits. Life Sci. 2008;83:602–7.CrossRefPubMed Hoffman AN, Cheng JP, Zafonte RD, Kline AE. Administration of haloperidol and risperidone after neurobehavioral testing hinders the recovery of traumatic brain injury-induced deficits. Life Sci. 2008;83:602–7.CrossRefPubMed
83.
go back to reference Kline AE, Massucci JL, Zafonte RD, Dixon CE, DeFeo JR, Rogers EH. Differential effects of single versus multiple administrations of haloperidol and risperidone on functional outcome after experimental brain trauma. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:919–24.CrossRefPubMed Kline AE, Massucci JL, Zafonte RD, Dixon CE, DeFeo JR, Rogers EH. Differential effects of single versus multiple administrations of haloperidol and risperidone on functional outcome after experimental brain trauma. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:919–24.CrossRefPubMed
84.
go back to reference Teitelbaum JS, Ayoub O, Skrobik Y. A critical appraisal of sedation, analgesia and delirium in neurocritical care. Can J Neurol Sci. 2011;38:815–25.PubMed Teitelbaum JS, Ayoub O, Skrobik Y. A critical appraisal of sedation, analgesia and delirium in neurocritical care. Can J Neurol Sci. 2011;38:815–25.PubMed
85.
go back to reference Herregods L, Verbeke J, Rolly G, Colardyn F. Effect of propofol on elevated intracranial pressure. Preliminary results. Anaesthesia. 1988;43:107–9.CrossRefPubMed Herregods L, Verbeke J, Rolly G, Colardyn F. Effect of propofol on elevated intracranial pressure. Preliminary results. Anaesthesia. 1988;43:107–9.CrossRefPubMed
86.
go back to reference Kelly DF, Goodale DB, Williams J, et al. Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury: a randomized, prospective double-blinded pilot trial. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:1042–52.CrossRefPubMed Kelly DF, Goodale DB, Williams J, et al. Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury: a randomized, prospective double-blinded pilot trial. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:1042–52.CrossRefPubMed
87.
go back to reference Herregods L, Mergaert C, Rolly G, Collardyn F. Comparison of the effects of 24-hour propofol or fentanyl infusions on intracranial pressure. J Drug Dev. 1989;2:99–100. Herregods L, Mergaert C, Rolly G, Collardyn F. Comparison of the effects of 24-hour propofol or fentanyl infusions on intracranial pressure. J Drug Dev. 1989;2:99–100.
88.
go back to reference Cremer OL, Moons KG, Bouman EA, Kruijswijk JE, de Smet AM, Kalkman CJ. Long-term propofol infusion and cardiac failure in adult head-injured patients. Lancet. 2001;357:117–8.CrossRefPubMed Cremer OL, Moons KG, Bouman EA, Kruijswijk JE, de Smet AM, Kalkman CJ. Long-term propofol infusion and cardiac failure in adult head-injured patients. Lancet. 2001;357:117–8.CrossRefPubMed
89.
go back to reference Iyer VN, Hoel R, Rabinstein AA. Propofol infusion syndrome in patients with refractory status epilepticus: an 11-year clinical experience. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:3024–30.CrossRefPubMed Iyer VN, Hoel R, Rabinstein AA. Propofol infusion syndrome in patients with refractory status epilepticus: an 11-year clinical experience. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:3024–30.CrossRefPubMed
90.
go back to reference Barrientos-Vega R, Mar Sanchez-Soria M, Morales-Garcia C, Robas-Gomez A, Cuena-Boy R, Ayensa-Rincon A. Prolonged sedation of critically ill patients with midazolam or propofol: impact on weaning and costs. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:33–40.CrossRefPubMed Barrientos-Vega R, Mar Sanchez-Soria M, Morales-Garcia C, Robas-Gomez A, Cuena-Boy R, Ayensa-Rincon A. Prolonged sedation of critically ill patients with midazolam or propofol: impact on weaning and costs. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:33–40.CrossRefPubMed
91.
go back to reference Jakob SM, Ruokonen E, Grounds RM, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs. midazolam or propofol for sedation during prolonged mechanical ventilation: two randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2012;307:1151–60.CrossRefPubMed Jakob SM, Ruokonen E, Grounds RM, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs. midazolam or propofol for sedation during prolonged mechanical ventilation: two randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2012;307:1151–60.CrossRefPubMed
92.
go back to reference Yahwak JA, Riker RR, Fraser GL, Subak-Sharpe S. Determination of a lorazepam dose threshold for using the osmol gap to monitor for propylene glycol toxicity. Pharmacotherapy. 2008;28:984–91.CrossRefPubMed Yahwak JA, Riker RR, Fraser GL, Subak-Sharpe S. Determination of a lorazepam dose threshold for using the osmol gap to monitor for propylene glycol toxicity. Pharmacotherapy. 2008;28:984–91.CrossRefPubMed
93.
go back to reference Horinek EL, Kiser TH, Fish DN, MacLaren R. Propylene glycol accumulation in critically ill patients receiving continuous intravenous lorazepam infusions. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43:1964–71.CrossRefPubMed Horinek EL, Kiser TH, Fish DN, MacLaren R. Propylene glycol accumulation in critically ill patients receiving continuous intravenous lorazepam infusions. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43:1964–71.CrossRefPubMed
94.
go back to reference Riker RR, Shehabi Y, Bokesch PM, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2009;301:489–99.CrossRefPubMed Riker RR, Shehabi Y, Bokesch PM, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2009;301:489–99.CrossRefPubMed
95.
go back to reference Mirski MA, Lewin JJ 3rd, Ledroux S, et al. Cognitive improvement during continuous sedation in critically ill, awake and responsive patients: the Acute Neurological ICU Sedation Trial (ANIST). Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:1505–13.CrossRefPubMed Mirski MA, Lewin JJ 3rd, Ledroux S, et al. Cognitive improvement during continuous sedation in critically ill, awake and responsive patients: the Acute Neurological ICU Sedation Trial (ANIST). Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:1505–13.CrossRefPubMed
96.
go back to reference Tang JF, Chen PL, Tang EJ, May TA, Stiver SI. Dexmedetomidine controls agitation and facilitates reliable, serial neurological examinations in a non-intubated patient with traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:175–81.CrossRefPubMed Tang JF, Chen PL, Tang EJ, May TA, Stiver SI. Dexmedetomidine controls agitation and facilitates reliable, serial neurological examinations in a non-intubated patient with traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:175–81.CrossRefPubMed
97.
go back to reference Grof TM, Bledsoe KA. Evaluating the use of dexmedetomidine in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2010;12:356–61.CrossRefPubMed Grof TM, Bledsoe KA. Evaluating the use of dexmedetomidine in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2010;12:356–61.CrossRefPubMed
98.
go back to reference Chen HI, Malhotra NR, Oddo M, Heuer GG, Levine JM, LeRoux PD. Barbiturate infusion for intractable intracranial hypertension and its effect on brain oxygenation. Neurosurgery. 2008;63:880–6. discussion 6–7.CrossRefPubMed Chen HI, Malhotra NR, Oddo M, Heuer GG, Levine JM, LeRoux PD. Barbiturate infusion for intractable intracranial hypertension and its effect on brain oxygenation. Neurosurgery. 2008;63:880–6. discussion 6–7.CrossRefPubMed
99.
go back to reference Marshall GT, James RF, Landman MP, et al. Pentobarbital coma for refractory intra-cranial hypertension after severe traumatic brain injury: mortality predictions and one-year outcomes in 55 patients. J Trauma. 2010;69:275–83.CrossRefPubMed Marshall GT, James RF, Landman MP, et al. Pentobarbital coma for refractory intra-cranial hypertension after severe traumatic brain injury: mortality predictions and one-year outcomes in 55 patients. J Trauma. 2010;69:275–83.CrossRefPubMed
100.
go back to reference Claassen J, Hirsch LJ, Mayer SA. Treatment of status epilepticus: a survey of neurologists. J Neurol Sci. 2003;211:37–41.CrossRefPubMed Claassen J, Hirsch LJ, Mayer SA. Treatment of status epilepticus: a survey of neurologists. J Neurol Sci. 2003;211:37–41.CrossRefPubMed
101.
go back to reference Karabinis A, Mandragos K, Stergiopoulos S, et al. Safety and efficacy of analgesia-based sedation with remifentanil versus standard hypnotic-based regimens in intensive care unit patients with brain injuries: a randomised, controlled trial [ISRCTN50308308]. Crit Care. 2004;8:R268–80.CrossRefPubMed Karabinis A, Mandragos K, Stergiopoulos S, et al. Safety and efficacy of analgesia-based sedation with remifentanil versus standard hypnotic-based regimens in intensive care unit patients with brain injuries: a randomised, controlled trial [ISRCTN50308308]. Crit Care. 2004;8:R268–80.CrossRefPubMed
102.
go back to reference Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL. Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1325–9.CrossRefPubMed Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL. Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1325–9.CrossRefPubMed
103.
go back to reference Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ, et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1338–44.CrossRefPubMed Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ, et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1338–44.CrossRefPubMed
104.
go back to reference Deogaonkar A, Gupta R, DeGeorgia M, et al. Bispectral Index monitoring correlates with sedation scales in brain-injured patients. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:2403–6.CrossRefPubMed Deogaonkar A, Gupta R, DeGeorgia M, et al. Bispectral Index monitoring correlates with sedation scales in brain-injured patients. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:2403–6.CrossRefPubMed
105.
go back to reference Bergeron N, Dubois MJ, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:859–64.CrossRefPubMed Bergeron N, Dubois MJ, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:859–64.CrossRefPubMed
106.
go back to reference Van Rompaey B, Elseviers MM, Schuurmans MJ, Shortridge-Baggett LM, Truijen S, Bossaert L. Risk factors for delirium in intensive care patients: a prospective cohort study. Crit Care. 2009;13:R77.CrossRefPubMed Van Rompaey B, Elseviers MM, Schuurmans MJ, Shortridge-Baggett LM, Truijen S, Bossaert L. Risk factors for delirium in intensive care patients: a prospective cohort study. Crit Care. 2009;13:R77.CrossRefPubMed
108.
go back to reference McDonagh DL, Olson DM, Kalia JS, Gupta R, Abou-Chebl A, Zaidat OO. Anesthesia and sedation practices among neurointerventionalists during acute ischemic stroke endovascular therapy. Front Neurol. 2010;1:118.PubMed McDonagh DL, Olson DM, Kalia JS, Gupta R, Abou-Chebl A, Zaidat OO. Anesthesia and sedation practices among neurointerventionalists during acute ischemic stroke endovascular therapy. Front Neurol. 2010;1:118.PubMed
109.
go back to reference Abou-Chebl A, Lin R, Hussain MS, et al. Conscious sedation versus general anesthesia during endovascular therapy for acute anterior circulation stroke: preliminary results from a retrospective, multicenter study. Stroke. 2010;41:1175–9.CrossRefPubMed Abou-Chebl A, Lin R, Hussain MS, et al. Conscious sedation versus general anesthesia during endovascular therapy for acute anterior circulation stroke: preliminary results from a retrospective, multicenter study. Stroke. 2010;41:1175–9.CrossRefPubMed
110.
go back to reference Jumaa MA, Zhang F, Ruiz-Ares G, et al. Comparison of safety and clinical and radiographic outcomes in endovascular acute stroke therapy for proximal middle cerebral artery occlusion with intubation and general anesthesia versus the nonintubated state. Stroke. 2010;41:1180–4.CrossRefPubMed Jumaa MA, Zhang F, Ruiz-Ares G, et al. Comparison of safety and clinical and radiographic outcomes in endovascular acute stroke therapy for proximal middle cerebral artery occlusion with intubation and general anesthesia versus the nonintubated state. Stroke. 2010;41:1180–4.CrossRefPubMed
111.
go back to reference Olson DM, Thoyre SM, Peterson ED, Graffagnino C. A randomized evaluation of bispectral index-augmented sedation assessment in neurological patients. Neurocrit Care. 2009;11:20–7.CrossRefPubMed Olson DM, Thoyre SM, Peterson ED, Graffagnino C. A randomized evaluation of bispectral index-augmented sedation assessment in neurological patients. Neurocrit Care. 2009;11:20–7.CrossRefPubMed
112.
go back to reference Enblad P, Nilsson P, Chambers I, et al. R3-survey of traumatic brain injury management in European Brain IT centres year 2001. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:1058–65.CrossRefPubMed Enblad P, Nilsson P, Chambers I, et al. R3-survey of traumatic brain injury management in European Brain IT centres year 2001. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:1058–65.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Emergency Neurological Life Support: Airway, Ventilation, and Sedation
Authors
David B. Seder
Richard R. Riker
Andy Jagoda
Wade S. Smith
Scott D. Weingart
Publication date
01-09-2012
Publisher
Humana Press Inc
Published in
Neurocritical Care / Issue Special Issue 1/2012
Print ISSN: 1541-6933
Electronic ISSN: 1556-0961
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-012-9753-6

Other articles of this Special Issue 1/2012

Neurocritical Care 1/2012 Go to the issue