Top

Current Psychiatry Reports

Published in:

01-12-2018 | Disaster Psychiatry: Trauma, PTSD, and Related Disorders (MJ Friedman, Section Editor)

The Current Evidence for Acute Stress Disorder

Author: Richard A. Bryant

Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports | Issue 12/2018

Abstract

Purpose of Review

The aim of this review is to provide a summary of the current evidence pertaining to the course of acute and chronic posttraumatic stress, the diagnosis of acute stress disorder (ASD), and treatment of acute stress disorder and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Recent Findings

Although acute stress disorder was introduced partly to predict subsequent PTSD, longitudinal studies indicate that ASD is not an accurate predictor of PTSD. Recent analytic approaches adopting latent growth mixture modeling have shown that trauma-exposed people tend to follow one of four trajectories: (a) resilient, (b) worsening, (c) recovery, and (d) chronically distressed. The complexity of the course of posttraumatic stress limits the capacity of the ASD diagnosis to predict subsequent PTSD. Current evidence indicates that the treatment of choice for ASD is trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy, and this intervention results in reduced chronic PTSD severity. Recent attempts to limit subsequent PTSD by early provision of pharmacological interventions have been promising, especially administration of corticosterone to modulate glucocorticoid levels.

Summary

Although the ASD diagnosis does not accurately predict chronic PTSD, it describes recently trauma-exposed people with severe distress. Provision of CBT in the acute phase is the best available strategy to limit subsequent PTSD.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition. Washington DC 1994.

Bryant RA. Acute stress disorder as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72:233–9. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.09r05072blu.CrossRefPubMed

Bryant RA, Creamer M, O’Donnell ML, Silove D, McFarlane AC. A multisite study of the capacity of acute stress disorder diagnosis to predict posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(6):923–9.CrossRefPubMed

Harvey AG, Bryant RA. The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective evaluation of motor vehicle accident survivors. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66(3):507–12.CrossRefPubMed

Harvey AG, Bryant RA. The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: a 2-year prospective evaluation. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67(6):985–8.CrossRefPubMed

Bryant RA, Salmon K, Sinclair E, Davidson P. The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in injured children. J Trauma Stress. 2007;20(6):1075–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20282.CrossRefPubMed

Dalgleish T, Meiser-Stedman R, Kassam-Adams N, Ehlers A, Winston F, Smith P, et al. Predictive validity of acute stress disorder in children and adolescents. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;192(5):392–3. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.040451.CrossRefPubMed

Ji L, Xiaowei Z, Chuanlin W, Wei L. Investigation of posttraumatic stress disorder in children after animal-induced injury in China. Pediatrics. 2010;126(2):e320–4. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-3530.CrossRefPubMed

Meiser-Stedman R, Smith P, Yule W, Glucksman E, Dalgleish T. Posttraumatic stress disorder in young children 3 years posttrauma: prevalence and longitudinal predictors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(3):334–9. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.15m10002.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

10.

Bryant RA, Friedman MJ, Spiegel D, Ursano R, Strain J. A review of acute stress disorder in DSM-5. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(9):802–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20737.CrossRefPubMed

11.

Armour C, Elklit A, Shevlin M. The latent structure of acute stress disorder. Psychol Trauma. 2013;5:18–25. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3182a5befb.CrossRef

12.

Bryant RA, Creamer M, O'Donnell M, Forbes D, McFarlane AC, Silove D, et al. Acute and chronic posttraumatic stress symptoms in the emergence of posttraumatic stress disorder: a network analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(2):135–42. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3470.CrossRefPubMed

13.

Meiser-Stedman R, McKinnon A, Dixon C, Boyle A, Smith P, Dalgleish T. Acute stress disorder and the transition to posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: prevalence, course, prognosis, diagnostic suitability, and risk markers. Depress Anxiety. 2017;34(4):348–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22602.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

14.

McKinnon A, Meiser-Stedman R, Watson P, Dixon C, Kassam-Adams N, Ehlers A, et al. The latent structure of acute stress disorder symptoms in trauma-exposed children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016;57(11):1308–16.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

15.

Mordeno IG, Cue MP. Examining the latent structure of acute stress disorder symptoms in Filipino-victims of a flashflood disaster. Community Ment Health J. 2015;51(5):613–20.CrossRefPubMed

16.

Hansen M, Armour C, Wang L, Elklit A, Bryant RA. Assessing possible DSM-5 ASD subtypes in a sample of victims meeting caseness for DSM-5 ASD based on self-report following multiple forms of traumatic exposure. J Anxiety Disord. 2015;31:84–9.CrossRefPubMed

17.

Hansen M, Lasgaard M, Elklit A. The latent factor structure of acute stress disorder following bank robbery: testing alternative models in light of the pending DSM-5. Br J Clin Psychol. 2013;52(1):82–91.CrossRefPubMed

18.

Bryant RA, Creamer M, O’Donnell M, Silove D, McFarlane AC, Forbes D. A comparison of the capacity of DSM-IV and DSM-5 acute stress disorder definitions to predict posttraumatic stress disorder and related disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(4):391–7. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08731.CrossRefPubMed

19.

Gil S, Weinberg M, Shamai M, Ron P, Harel H, Or-Chen K. Risk factors for DSM-5 posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) among Israeli civilians during the 2014 Israel-Hamas war. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy. 2016;8(1):49–54.CrossRef

20.

Bryant RA. Early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;53(9):789–95.CrossRefPubMed

21.

Galea S, Vlahov D, Resnick H, Ahern J, Susser E, Gold J, et al. Trends of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;158(6):514–24.CrossRefPubMed

22.

van Griensven F, Chakkraband MLS, Thienkrua W, Pengjuntr W, Cardozo BL, Tantipiwatanaskul P, et al. Mental health problems among adults in tsunami-affected areas in southern Thailand. JAMA. 2006;296(5):537–48. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.5.537.CrossRefPubMed

23.

Bryant RA, O’Donnell M, Creamer M, McFarlane AC, Silove D. A multi-site analysis of the fluctuating course of posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA: Psychiatry. 2013;70:839–46. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1137.CrossRef

24.

Bryant RA, O’Donnell ML, Forbes D, McFarlane AC, Silove D, Creamer M. The course of suicide risk following traumatic injury. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(5):648–53.CrossRefPubMed

25.

Bryant RA, O'Donnell ML, Creamer M, McFarlane AC, Clark CR, Silove D. The psychiatric sequelae of traumatic injury. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(3):312–20.CrossRefPubMed

26.

Forbes D, Nickerson A, Alkemade N, Bryant RA, Creamer M, Silove D, et al. Longitudinal analysis of latent classes of psychopathology and patterns of class migration in survivors of severe injury. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;57(11):1308–16.

27.

• Galatzer-Levy IR, Huang SH, Bonanno GA. Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: a review and statistical evaluation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2018;63:41–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.008 Excellent review of trajectories following acute stress reactions after trauma. CrossRefPubMed

28.

Bryant RA, Nickerson A, Creamer M, O'Donnell M, Forbes D, Galatzer-Levy I, et al. Trajectory of post-traumatic stress following traumatic injury: 6-year follow-up. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;206(5):417–23. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.145516.CrossRefPubMed

29.

Pietrzak RH, Van Ness PH, Fried TR, Galea S, Norris FH. Trajectories of posttraumatic stress symptomatology in older persons affected by a large-magnitude disaster. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(4):520–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.12.005.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

30.

Pietrzak RH, Feder A, Singh R, Schechter CB, Bromet EJ, Katz CL, et al. Trajectories of PTSD risk and resilience in World Trade Center responders: an 8-year prospective cohort study. Psychol Med. 2013;44:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713000597.CrossRef

31.

Bonanno GA, Mancini AD, Horton JL, Powell TM, Leardmann CA, Boyko EJ, et al. Trajectories of trauma symptoms and resilience in deployed U.S. military service members: prospective cohort study. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(4):317–23. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096552.CrossRefPubMed

32.

Karstoft KI, Galatzer-Levy IR, Statnikov A, Li Z, Shalev AY, members of Jerusalem Trauma Outreach. Bridging a translational gap: using machine learning to improve the prediction of PTSD. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0399-8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

33.

Karstoft KI, Statnikov A, Andersen SB, Madsen T, Galatzer-Levy IR. Early identification of posttraumatic stress following military deployment: application of machine learning methods to a prospective study of Danish soldiers. J Affect Disord. 2015;184:170–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.057.CrossRefPubMed

34.

• Dai W, Liu A, Kaminga AC, Deng J, Lai Z, Yang J, et al. Prevalence of acute stress disorder among road traffic accident survivors: a meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18(1):188. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1769-9 The only recent meta-analysis of acute stress disorder summarizing the prevalence of the disorder in the published literature. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

35.

Johnson LR, McGuire J, Lazarus R, Palmer AA. Pavlovian fear memory circuits and phenotype models of PTSD. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62(2):638–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.07.004.CrossRefPubMed

36.

Parsons RG, Ressler KJ. Implications of memory modulation for post-traumatic stress and fear disorders. Nat Neurosci. 2013;16(2):146–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3296.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

37.

Myers KM, Davis M. Mechanisms of fear extinction. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12(2):120–50. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001939.CrossRefPubMed

38.

Jovanovic T, Ressler KJ. How the neurocircuitry and genetics of fear inhibition may inform our understanding of PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(6):648–62. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09071074.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

39.

Geuze E, Vermetten E, Ruf M, de Kloet CS, Westenberg HG. Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2008;42(8):659–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.06.007.CrossRefPubMed

40.

Patel R, Spreng RN, Shin LM, Girard TA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and beyond: a meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36(9):2130–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.06.003.CrossRefPubMed

41.

Cwik JC, Sartory G, Nuyken M, Schurholt B, Seitz RJ. Posterior and prefrontal contributions to the development posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity: an fMRI study of symptom provocation in acute stress disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017;267:495–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-016-0713-6.CrossRefPubMed

42.

Stevens JS, Kim YJ, Galatzer-Levy IR, Reddy R, Ely TD, Nemeroff CB, et al. Amygdala reactivity and anterior cingulate habituation predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptom maintenance after acute civilian trauma. Biol Psychiatry. 2017;81(12):1023–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.11.015.CrossRefPubMed

43.

Bryant RA, Creamer M, O'Donnell M, Silove D, McFarlane AC. A multisite study of initial respiration rate and heart rate as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(11):1694–701.CrossRefPubMed

44.

Kassam-Adams N, Garcia-Espana JF, Fein JA, Winston FK. Heart rate and posttraumatic stress in injured children. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(3):335–40. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.3.335.CrossRefPubMed

45.

Ehlers A, Suendermann O, Boellinghaus I, Vossbeck-Elsebusch A, Gamer M, Briddon E, et al. Heart rate responses to standardized trauma-related pictures in acute posttraumatic stress disorder. Int J Psychophysiol. 2010;78(1):27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.04.009.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

46.

O’Donnell ML, Creamer M, Elliott P, Bryant R. Tonic and phasic heart rate as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychosom Med. 2007;69:256–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3180417d04.CrossRefPubMed

47.

Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P. Risk factors for PTSD-related traumatic events: a prospective analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(4):529–35.CrossRefPubMed

48.

O'Donnell ML, Varker T, Creamer M, Fletcher S, McFarlane AC, Silove D, et al. Exploration of delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder after severe injury. Psychosom Med. 2013;75(1):68–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSM.0b013e3182761e8b.CrossRefPubMed

49.

Smid GE, van der Velden PG, Lensvelt-Mulders GJ, Knipscheer JW, Gersons BP, Kleber RJ. Stress sensitization following a disaster: a prospective study. Psychol Med. 2012;42:1675–86. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711002765.CrossRefPubMed

50.

Shalev AY, Peri T, Brandes D, Freedman S, Orr SP, Pitman RK. Auditory startle response in trauma survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(2):255–61. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.255.CrossRefPubMed

51.

Jovanovic T, Sakoman AJ, Kozaric-Kovacic D, Mestrovic AH, Duncan EJ, Davis M, et al. Acute stress disorder versus chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: inhibition of fear as a function of time since trauma. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(3):217–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21991.CrossRefPubMed

52.

Ehlers A, Clark DM. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2000;38(4):319–45.CrossRefPubMed

53.

Kleim B, Ehlers A, Glucksman E. Early predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in assault survivors. Psychol Med. 2007;37(10):1457–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001006.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

54.

Wikman A, Molloy GJ, Randall G, Steptoe A. Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms six months following acute coronary syndrome. Psychol Health. 2011;26(8):974–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2010.512663.CrossRefPubMed

55.

Brewin CR. Coherence, disorganization, and fragmentation in traumatic memory reconsidered: a response to Rubin et al. (2016). J Abnorm Psychol. 2016;125(7):1011–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000154.CrossRefPubMed

56.

Meiser-Stedman R, Dalgleish T, Smith P, Yule W, Glucksman E. Diagnostic, demographic, memory quality, and cognitive variables associated with acute stress disorder in children and adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116(1):65–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.65.CrossRefPubMed

57.

McKinnon A, Brewer N, Meiser-Stedman R, Nixon RD. Trauma memory characteristics and the development of acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder in youth. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2016;54:112–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.07.009.CrossRefPubMed

58.

Phoenix Australia - Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health. Australian guidelines for the treatment of acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Phoenix Australia, Melbourne, 2013.

59.

National Institute of Clinical Excellence. The management of PTSD in adults and children in primary and secondary care. Wiltshire; 2005.

60.

Bryant RA, Harvey AG, Dang ST, Sackville T, Basten C. Treatment of acute stress disorder: a comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66(5):862–6.CrossRefPubMed

61.

Bryant RA, Sackville T, Dang ST, Moulds M, Guthrie R. Treating acute stress disorder: an evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(11):1780–6.PubMed

62.

Bryant RA, Mastrodomenico J, Felmingham KL, Hopwood S, Kenny L, Kandris E, et al. Treatment of acute stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65(6):659–67. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.65.6.659.CrossRefPubMed

63.

Kliem S, Kroger C. Prevention of chronic PTSD with early cognitive behavioral therapy. A meta-analysis using mixed-effects modeling. Behav Res Ther. 2013;51(11):753–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.08.005.CrossRefPubMed

64.

Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, Bisson JI. Systematic review and meta-analysis of multiple-session early interventions following traumatic events. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(3):293–301. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08040590.CrossRefPubMed

65.

Rothbaum BO, Kearns MC, Price M, Malcoun E, Davis M, Ressler KJ, et al. Early intervention may prevent the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized pilot civilian study with modified prolonged exposure. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72(11):957–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.002.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

66.

Holmes EA, James EL, Coode-Bate T, Deeprose C. Can playing the computer game "Tetris" reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science. PLoS One. 2009;4(1):e4153. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004153.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

67.

Hagenaars MA, Holmes EA, Klaassen F, Elzinga B. Tetris and Word games lead to fewer intrusive memories when applied several days after analogue trauma. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2017;8(sup1):1386959. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1386959.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

68.

James EL, Lau-Zhu A, Tickle H, Horsch A, Holmes EA. Playing the computer game Tetris prior to viewing traumatic film material and subsequent intrusive memories: examining proactive interference. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2016;53:25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.11.004.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

69.

Iyadurai L, Blackwell SE, Meiser-Stedman R, Watson PC, Bonsall MB, Geddes JR, et al. Preventing intrusive memories after trauma via a brief intervention involving Tetris computer game play in the emergency department: a proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial. Mol Psychiatry. 2018;23(3):674–82. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2017.23.CrossRefPubMed

70.

Galatzer-Levy IR, Ankri Y, Freedman S, Israeli-Shalev Y, Roitman P, Gilad M, et al. Early PTSD symptom trajectories: persistence, recovery, and response to treatment: results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach and Prevention Study (J-TOPS). PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e70084. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070084.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

71.

• Howlett JR, Stein MB. Prevention of trauma and stressor-related disorders: a review. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(1):357–69. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.261 A thorough review of early psychological and pharmacological interventions in the acute posttraumatic phase to prevent subsequent PTSD. CrossRefPubMed

72.

Shalev AY, Ankri Y, Israeli-Shalev Y, Peleg T, Adessky R, Freedman S. Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment: results from the Jerusalem trauma outreach and prevention study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(2):166–76. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.127.CrossRefPubMed

73.

Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Pratchett LC, Lehrner A, Koch EC, Van Manen JA, et al. Cortisol augmentation of a psychological treatment for warfighters with posttraumatic stress disorder: randomized trial showing improved treatment retention and outcome. Psychoneuroendocrin. 2015;51:589–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.004.CrossRef

74.

Morris MC, Hellman N, Abelson JL, Rao U. Cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure as early markers of PTSD risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;49:79–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.09.001.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

75.

Cohen H, Matar MA, Buskila D, Kaplan Z, Zohar J. Early post-stressor intervention with high-dose corticosterone attenuates posttraumatic stress response in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64(8):708–17.CrossRefPubMed

76.

Zohar J, Yahalom H, Kozlovsky N, Cwikel-Hamzany S, Matar MA, Kaplan Z, et al. High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: interplay between clinical and animal studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;21(11):796–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.06.001.CrossRefPubMed

77.

Delahanty DL, Gabert-Quillen C, Ostrowski SA, Nugent NR, Fischer B, Morris A, et al. The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: a randomized trial. CNS Spectr. 2013;18(2):103–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852913000096.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

78.

de Quervain DJ, Aerni A, Schelling G, Roozendaal B. Glucocorticoids and the regulation of memory in health and disease. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2009;30(3):358–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.03.002.CrossRefPubMed

79.

Bryant RA, McGrath C, Felmingham KL. The roles of noradrenergic and glucocorticoid activation in the development of intrusive memories. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(4). doi. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062675 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

80.

Hawk LW, Dougall AL, Ursano RJ, Baum A. Urinary catecholamines and cortisol in recent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Psychosom Med. 2000;62(3):423–34.CrossRefPubMed

81.

Videlock EJ, Peleg T, Segman R, Yehuda R, Pitman RK, Shalev AY. Stress hormones and post-traumatic stress disorder in civilian trauma victims: a longitudinal study. Part II: the adrenergic response. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008;11(3):373–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145707008139.CrossRefPubMed

82.

Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM, Healy AR, Cheema F, Lasko NB, et al. Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51(2):189–92.CrossRefPubMed

83.

Stein MB, Kerridge C, Dimsdale JE, Hoyt DB. Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. J Trauma Stress. 2007;20(6):923–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20270.CrossRefPubMed

84.

Hoge EA, Worthington JJ, Nagurney JT, Chang Y, Kay EB, Feterowski CM, et al. Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. CNS Neurosci Therapeut. 2012;18(1):21–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00227.x.CrossRef

85.

Argolo FC, Cavalcanti-Ribeiro P, Netto LR, Quarantini LC. Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol: a meta-analytic review. J Psychosom Res. 2015;79(2):89–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.04.006.CrossRefPubMed

86.

Bryant RA, Creamer M, O'Donnell M, Silove D, McFarlane AC. A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;65(5):438–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.032.CrossRefPubMed

87.

Holbrook TL, Galarneau MR, Dye JL, Quinn K, Dougherty AL. Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:110–7. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0903326.CrossRefPubMed

88.

• Bryant RA. Acute stress disorder: what it is and how to treat it. New York: Guilford; 2016. The latest summary of the state of the literature on mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatment of acute stress disorder.

Title: The Current Evidence for Acute Stress Disorder
Author: Richard A. Bryant
Publication date: 01-12-2018
Publisher: Springer US
Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports / Issue 12/2018
Print ISSN: 1523-3812
Electronic ISSN: 1535-1645
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-018-0976-x

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

The Current Evidence for Acute Stress Disorder

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Recent Findings

Summary

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Recent Findings

Summary

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 12/2018

Sex Differences in Personality Disorders

Correction to: Robust Findings From 25 Years of PTSD Genetics Research

PTSD and Physical Health

Ethical Considerations for Mental Health Clinicians Working with Adolescents in the Digital Age

Management of Post-Traumatic Nightmares: a Review of Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Treatments Since 2013

Gender-Affirming Hormone Use in Transgender Individuals: Impact on Behavioral Health and Cognition