Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 2/2012

01-04-2012 | Pediatric Neurology (R Packer, Section Editor)

Congenital Myopathies: An Update

Authors: Jessica R. Nance, James J. Dowling, Elizabeth M. Gibbs, Carsten G. Bönnemann

Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports | Issue 2/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Congenital myopathy is a clinicopathological concept of characteristic histopathological findings on muscle biopsy in a patient with early-onset weakness. Three main categories are recognized within the classical congenital myopathies: nemaline myopathy, core myopathy, and centronuclear myopathy. Recent evidence of overlapping clinical and histological features between the classical forms and their different genetic entities suggests that there may be shared pathomechanisms between the congenital myopathies. Animal models, especially mouse and zebrafish, have been especially helpful in elucidating such pathomechanisms associated with the congenital myopathies and provide models in which future therapies can be investigated.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Gonatas NK. The fine structure of the rod-like bodies in nemaline myopathy and their relation to the Z-discs. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1966;25:409–21.PubMedCrossRef Gonatas NK. The fine structure of the rod-like bodies in nemaline myopathy and their relation to the Z-discs. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1966;25:409–21.PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference Goebel HH, Warlo I. Nemaline myopathy with intranuclear rods–intranuclear rod myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 1997;7:13–9.PubMedCrossRef Goebel HH, Warlo I. Nemaline myopathy with intranuclear rods–intranuclear rod myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 1997;7:13–9.PubMedCrossRef
3.
go back to reference Nowak KJ, Wattanasirichaigoon D, Goebel HH, et al. Mutations in the skeletal muscle alpha-actin gene in patients with actin myopathy and nemaline myopathy. Nat Genet. 1999;23:208–12.PubMedCrossRef Nowak KJ, Wattanasirichaigoon D, Goebel HH, et al. Mutations in the skeletal muscle alpha-actin gene in patients with actin myopathy and nemaline myopathy. Nat Genet. 1999;23:208–12.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Pelin K, Hilpela P, Donner K, et al. Mutations in the nebulin gene associated with autosomal recessive nemaline myopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999;96:2305–10.PubMedCrossRef Pelin K, Hilpela P, Donner K, et al. Mutations in the nebulin gene associated with autosomal recessive nemaline myopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999;96:2305–10.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Laing NG, Wilton SD, Akkari PA, et al. A mutation in the alpha tropomyosin gene TPM3 associated with autosomal dominant nemaline myopathy. Nat Genet. 1995;9:75–9.PubMedCrossRef Laing NG, Wilton SD, Akkari PA, et al. A mutation in the alpha tropomyosin gene TPM3 associated with autosomal dominant nemaline myopathy. Nat Genet. 1995;9:75–9.PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Donner K, Ollikainen M, Ridanpaa M, et al. Mutations in the beta-tropomyosin (TPM2) gene–a rare cause of nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:151–8.PubMedCrossRef Donner K, Ollikainen M, Ridanpaa M, et al. Mutations in the beta-tropomyosin (TPM2) gene–a rare cause of nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:151–8.PubMedCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Johnston JJ, Kelley RI, Crawford TO, et al. A novel nemaline myopathy in the Amish caused by a mutation in troponin T1. Am J Hum Genet. 2000;67:814–21.PubMedCrossRef Johnston JJ, Kelley RI, Crawford TO, et al. A novel nemaline myopathy in the Amish caused by a mutation in troponin T1. Am J Hum Genet. 2000;67:814–21.PubMedCrossRef
8.
go back to reference Agrawal PB, Greenleaf RS, Tomczak KK, et al. Nemaline myopathy with minicores caused by mutation of the CFL2 gene encoding the skeletal muscle actin-binding protein, cofilin-2. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;80:162–1677.PubMedCrossRef Agrawal PB, Greenleaf RS, Tomczak KK, et al. Nemaline myopathy with minicores caused by mutation of the CFL2 gene encoding the skeletal muscle actin-binding protein, cofilin-2. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;80:162–1677.PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference •• Sambuughin N, Yau KS, Olive M, et al. Dominant mutations in KBTBD13, a member of the BTB/Kelch family, cause nemaline myopathy with cores. Am J Hum Genet. 2010;87:842–7. This article describes the identification of a new gene associated with NM with both rods and cores, known as NM type 6.PubMedCrossRef •• Sambuughin N, Yau KS, Olive M, et al. Dominant mutations in KBTBD13, a member of the BTB/Kelch family, cause nemaline myopathy with cores. Am J Hum Genet. 2010;87:842–7. This article describes the identification of a new gene associated with NM with both rods and cores, known as NM type 6.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Ryan MM, Schnell C, Strickland CD, et al. Nemaline myopathy: a clinical study of 143 cases. Ann Neurol. 2001;50:312–20.PubMedCrossRef Ryan MM, Schnell C, Strickland CD, et al. Nemaline myopathy: a clinical study of 143 cases. Ann Neurol. 2001;50:312–20.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference • Laing NG, Dye DE, Wallgren-Pettersson C, et al. Mutations and polymorphisms of the skeletal muscle alpha-actin gene (ACTA1). Hum Mutat. 2009;30:1267–77. This established the first large database describing ACTA1 mutations. Evaluation of this data is important for the delineation of emerging genotype-phenotype relationships.PubMedCrossRef • Laing NG, Dye DE, Wallgren-Pettersson C, et al. Mutations and polymorphisms of the skeletal muscle alpha-actin gene (ACTA1). Hum Mutat. 2009;30:1267–77. This established the first large database describing ACTA1 mutations. Evaluation of this data is important for the delineation of emerging genotype-phenotype relationships.PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Wallgren-Pettersson C, Lehtokari VL, Kalimo H, et al. Distal myopathy caused by homozygous missense mutations in the nebulin gene. Brain. 2007;130:1465–76.PubMedCrossRef Wallgren-Pettersson C, Lehtokari VL, Kalimo H, et al. Distal myopathy caused by homozygous missense mutations in the nebulin gene. Brain. 2007;130:1465–76.PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Sung SS, Brassington AM, Grannatt K, et al. Mutations in genes encoding fast-twitch contractile proteins cause distal arthrogryposis syndromes. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;72:681–90.PubMedCrossRef Sung SS, Brassington AM, Grannatt K, et al. Mutations in genes encoding fast-twitch contractile proteins cause distal arthrogryposis syndromes. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;72:681–90.PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Monnier N, Lunardi J, Marty I, et al. Absence of beta-tropomyosin is a new cause of Escobar syndrome associated with nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:118–23.PubMedCrossRef Monnier N, Lunardi J, Marty I, et al. Absence of beta-tropomyosin is a new cause of Escobar syndrome associated with nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:118–23.PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Shimomura C, Nonaka I. Nemaline myopathy: comparative muscle histochemistry in the severe neonatal, moderate congenital, and adult-onset forms. Pediatr Neurol. 1989;5:25–31.PubMedCrossRef Shimomura C, Nonaka I. Nemaline myopathy: comparative muscle histochemistry in the severe neonatal, moderate congenital, and adult-onset forms. Pediatr Neurol. 1989;5:25–31.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Ilkovski B, Cooper ST, Nowak K, et al. Nemaline myopathy caused by mutations in the muscle alpha-skeletal-actin gene. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;68:1333–43.PubMedCrossRef Ilkovski B, Cooper ST, Nowak K, et al. Nemaline myopathy caused by mutations in the muscle alpha-skeletal-actin gene. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;68:1333–43.PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Feng JJ, Marston S. Genotype-phenotype correlations in ACTA1 mutations that cause congenital myopathies. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:6–16.PubMedCrossRef Feng JJ, Marston S. Genotype-phenotype correlations in ACTA1 mutations that cause congenital myopathies. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:6–16.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Ravenscroft G, Wilmshurst JM, Pillay K, et al. A novel ACTA1 mutation resulting in a severe congenital myopathy with nemaline bodies, intranuclear rods and type I fibre predominance. Neuromuscul Disord. 2011;21:31–6.PubMedCrossRef Ravenscroft G, Wilmshurst JM, Pillay K, et al. A novel ACTA1 mutation resulting in a severe congenital myopathy with nemaline bodies, intranuclear rods and type I fibre predominance. Neuromuscul Disord. 2011;21:31–6.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Laing NG, Wallgren-Pettersson C. 161st ENMC International Workshop on nemaline myopathy and related disorders, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2008. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:300–5.PubMedCrossRef Laing NG, Wallgren-Pettersson C. 161st ENMC International Workshop on nemaline myopathy and related disorders, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2008. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:300–5.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference •• Ravenscroft G, Jackaman C, Bringans S, et al. Mouse models of dominant ACTA1 disease recapitulate human disease and provide insight into therapies. Brain 2011;134:1101–15. This describes the development of two transgenic ACTA1 mouse models, one with severe disease and another with moderate disease, which demonstrate that the severity of ACTA1-related myopathy may be dependent on the amount of mutant protein expressed.PubMedCrossRef •• Ravenscroft G, Jackaman C, Bringans S, et al. Mouse models of dominant ACTA1 disease recapitulate human disease and provide insight into therapies. Brain 2011;134:1101–15. This describes the development of two transgenic ACTA1 mouse models, one with severe disease and another with moderate disease, which demonstrate that the severity of ACTA1-related myopathy may be dependent on the amount of mutant protein expressed.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Nowak KJ, Ravenscroft G, Jackaman C, et al. Rescue of skeletal muscle alpha-actin-null mice by cardiac (fetal) alpha-actin. J Cell Biol. 2009;185:903–15.PubMedCrossRef Nowak KJ, Ravenscroft G, Jackaman C, et al. Rescue of skeletal muscle alpha-actin-null mice by cardiac (fetal) alpha-actin. J Cell Biol. 2009;185:903–15.PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Jaeger MA, Sonnemann KJ, Fitzsimons DP, et al. Context-dependent functional substitution of alpha-skeletal actin by gamma-cytoplasmic actin. FASEB J. 2009;23:2205–14.PubMedCrossRef Jaeger MA, Sonnemann KJ, Fitzsimons DP, et al. Context-dependent functional substitution of alpha-skeletal actin by gamma-cytoplasmic actin. FASEB J. 2009;23:2205–14.PubMedCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Ryan MM, Sy C, Rudge S, et al. Dietary L-tyrosine supplementation in nemaline myopathy. J Child Neurol. 2008;23:609–13.PubMedCrossRef Ryan MM, Sy C, Rudge S, et al. Dietary L-tyrosine supplementation in nemaline myopathy. J Child Neurol. 2008;23:609–13.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Nguyen MA, Joya JE, Kee AJ, et al. Hypertrophy and dietary tyrosine ameliorate the phenotypes of a mouse model of severe nemaline myopathy. Brain. 2011;134:3513–26.CrossRef Nguyen MA, Joya JE, Kee AJ, et al. Hypertrophy and dietary tyrosine ameliorate the phenotypes of a mouse model of severe nemaline myopathy. Brain. 2011;134:3513–26.CrossRef
26.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Sewry CA, Counsell S, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of muscle in nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2004;14:779–84.PubMedCrossRef Jungbluth H, Sewry CA, Counsell S, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of muscle in nemaline myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2004;14:779–84.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference •• Romero NB, Lehtokari VL, Quijano-Roy S, et al. Core-rod myopathy caused by mutations in the nebulin gene. Neurology 2009;73:1159–61. This is a description of a patient with nebulin-related myopathy with rods and cores, which on muscle biopsy represents a novel association between gene mutation and overlapping histopathological phenotypes.PubMedCrossRef •• Romero NB, Lehtokari VL, Quijano-Roy S, et al. Core-rod myopathy caused by mutations in the nebulin gene. Neurology 2009;73:1159–61. This is a description of a patient with nebulin-related myopathy with rods and cores, which on muscle biopsy represents a novel association between gene mutation and overlapping histopathological phenotypes.PubMedCrossRef
28.
go back to reference Chen MJ, Shih CL, Wang K. Nebulin as an actin zipper. A two-module nebulin fragment promotes actin nucleation and stabilizes actin filaments. J Biol Chem. 1993;268:20327–34.PubMed Chen MJ, Shih CL, Wang K. Nebulin as an actin zipper. A two-module nebulin fragment promotes actin nucleation and stabilizes actin filaments. J Biol Chem. 1993;268:20327–34.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Witt CC, Burkart C, Labeit D, et al. Nebulin regulates thin filament length, contractility, and Z-disk structure in vivo. EMBO J. 2006;25:3843–55.PubMedCrossRef Witt CC, Burkart C, Labeit D, et al. Nebulin regulates thin filament length, contractility, and Z-disk structure in vivo. EMBO J. 2006;25:3843–55.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Bang ML, Li X, Littlefield R, et al. Nebulin-deficient mice exhibit shorter thin filament lengths and reduced contractile function in skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol. 2006;173:905–16.PubMedCrossRef Bang ML, Li X, Littlefield R, et al. Nebulin-deficient mice exhibit shorter thin filament lengths and reduced contractile function in skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol. 2006;173:905–16.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Chandra M, Mamidi R, Ford S, et al. Nebulin alters cross-bridge cycling kinetics and increases thin filament activation: a novel mechanism for increasing tension and reducing tension cost. J Biol Chem. 2009;284:30889–96.PubMedCrossRef Chandra M, Mamidi R, Ford S, et al. Nebulin alters cross-bridge cycling kinetics and increases thin filament activation: a novel mechanism for increasing tension and reducing tension cost. J Biol Chem. 2009;284:30889–96.PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference • Ottenheijm CA, Hooijman P, DeChene ET, et al. Altered myofilament function depresses force generation in patients with nebulin-based nemaline myopathy (NEM2). J Struct Biol. 2009;170:334–43. This study of muscle from patients with nebulin-related NM demonstrates that mutation of nebulin alters thin filament length and alters contraction kinetics resulting in decreased force generation.PubMedCrossRef • Ottenheijm CA, Hooijman P, DeChene ET, et al. Altered myofilament function depresses force generation in patients with nebulin-based nemaline myopathy (NEM2). J Struct Biol. 2009;170:334–43. This study of muscle from patients with nebulin-related NM demonstrates that mutation of nebulin alters thin filament length and alters contraction kinetics resulting in decreased force generation.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Ottenheijm CA, Witt CC, Stienen GJ, et al. Thin filament length dysregulation contributes to muscle weakness in nemaline myopathy patients with nebulin deficiency. Hum Mol Genet. 2009;18:2359–69.PubMedCrossRef Ottenheijm CA, Witt CC, Stienen GJ, et al. Thin filament length dysregulation contributes to muscle weakness in nemaline myopathy patients with nebulin deficiency. Hum Mol Genet. 2009;18:2359–69.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Telfer WR, Nelson DD, Waugh T, et al: neb: a zebrafish model of nemaline myopathy due to nebulin mutation. Dis Model Mech. 2011, In press. Telfer WR, Nelson DD, Waugh T, et al: neb: a zebrafish model of nemaline myopathy due to nebulin mutation. Dis Model Mech. 2011, In press.
35.
go back to reference Olive M, Goldfarb LG, Lee HS, et al. Nemaline myopathy type 6: clinical and myopathological features. Muscle Nerve. 2010;42:901–7.PubMedCrossRef Olive M, Goldfarb LG, Lee HS, et al. Nemaline myopathy type 6: clinical and myopathological features. Muscle Nerve. 2010;42:901–7.PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Monnier N, Romero NB, Lerale J, et al. An autosomal dominant congenital myopathy with cores and rods is associated with a neomutation in the RYR1 gene encoding the skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor. Hum Mol Genet. 2000;9:2599–608.PubMedCrossRef Monnier N, Romero NB, Lerale J, et al. An autosomal dominant congenital myopathy with cores and rods is associated with a neomutation in the RYR1 gene encoding the skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor. Hum Mol Genet. 2000;9:2599–608.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Scacheri PC, Hoffman EP, Fratkin JD, et al. A novel ryanodine receptor gene mutation causing both cores and rods in congenital myopathy. Neurology. 2000;55:1689–96.PubMed Scacheri PC, Hoffman EP, Fratkin JD, et al. A novel ryanodine receptor gene mutation causing both cores and rods in congenital myopathy. Neurology. 2000;55:1689–96.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Ono S, Ono K. Tropomyosin inhibits ADF/cofilin-dependent actin filament dynamics. J Cell Biol. 2002;156:1065–76.PubMedCrossRef Ono S, Ono K. Tropomyosin inhibits ADF/cofilin-dependent actin filament dynamics. J Cell Biol. 2002;156:1065–76.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Kaindl AM, Ruschendorf F, Krause S, et al. Missense mutations of ACTA1 cause dominant congenital myopathy with cores. J Med Genet. 2004;41:842–8.PubMedCrossRef Kaindl AM, Ruschendorf F, Krause S, et al. Missense mutations of ACTA1 cause dominant congenital myopathy with cores. J Med Genet. 2004;41:842–8.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Hernandez-Lain A, Husson I, Monnier N, et al. De novo RYR1 heterozygous mutation (I4898T) causing lethal core-rod myopathy in twins. Eur J Med Genet. 2011;54:29–33.PubMedCrossRef Hernandez-Lain A, Husson I, Monnier N, et al. De novo RYR1 heterozygous mutation (I4898T) causing lethal core-rod myopathy in twins. Eur J Med Genet. 2011;54:29–33.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Dubowitz V, Pearse AG. Oxidative enzymes and phosphorylase in central-core disease of muscle. Lancet. 1960;2:23–4.PubMedCrossRef Dubowitz V, Pearse AG. Oxidative enzymes and phosphorylase in central-core disease of muscle. Lancet. 1960;2:23–4.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Dubowitz V, Roy S. Central core disease of muscle: clinical, histochemical and electron microscopic studies of an affected mother and child. Brain. 1970;93:133–46.PubMedCrossRef Dubowitz V, Roy S. Central core disease of muscle: clinical, histochemical and electron microscopic studies of an affected mother and child. Brain. 1970;93:133–46.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Engel WK, Foster JB, Hughes BP, et al. Central core disease-an investigation of a rare muscle cell abnormality. Brain. 1961;84:167–85.PubMedCrossRef Engel WK, Foster JB, Hughes BP, et al. Central core disease-an investigation of a rare muscle cell abnormality. Brain. 1961;84:167–85.PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference • Amburgey K, McNamara N, Bennett LR, et al. Prevalence of congenital myopathies in a representative pediatric united states population. Ann Neurol. 2011;70:662–5. The study shows a similar prevalence of congenital myopathies in Southwestern Michigan compared to previous studies of patients in Sweden and Northern Ireland. It identifies centronuclear myopathies as the most common identifiable pathological subtype of congenital myopathies.PubMedCrossRef • Amburgey K, McNamara N, Bennett LR, et al. Prevalence of congenital myopathies in a representative pediatric united states population. Ann Neurol. 2011;70:662–5. The study shows a similar prevalence of congenital myopathies in Southwestern Michigan compared to previous studies of patients in Sweden and Northern Ireland. It identifies centronuclear myopathies as the most common identifiable pathological subtype of congenital myopathies.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Wu S, Ibarra MC, Malicdan MC, et al. Central core disease is due to RYR1 mutations in more than 90% of patients. Brain. 2006;129:1470–80.PubMedCrossRef Wu S, Ibarra MC, Malicdan MC, et al. Central core disease is due to RYR1 mutations in more than 90% of patients. Brain. 2006;129:1470–80.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Sewry CA, Muller C, Davis M, et al. The spectrum of pathology in central core disease. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:930–8.PubMedCrossRef Sewry CA, Muller C, Davis M, et al. The spectrum of pathology in central core disease. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:930–8.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Gamble JG, Rinsky LA, Lee JH. Orthopaedic aspects of central core disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1988;70:1061–6.PubMed Gamble JG, Rinsky LA, Lee JH. Orthopaedic aspects of central core disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1988;70:1061–6.PubMed
49.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Dowling JJ, Ferreiro A, et al. 182nd ENMC International Workshop: RYR1-related myopathies, 15-17th April 2011, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord. 2012;In press. Jungbluth H, Dowling JJ, Ferreiro A, et al. 182nd ENMC International Workshop: RYR1-related myopathies, 15-17th April 2011, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord. 2012;In press.
50.
go back to reference Sei Y, Sambuughin NN, Davis EJ, et al. Malignant hyperthermia in North America: genetic screening of the three hot spots in the type I ryanodine receptor gene. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:824–30.PubMedCrossRef Sei Y, Sambuughin NN, Davis EJ, et al. Malignant hyperthermia in North America: genetic screening of the three hot spots in the type I ryanodine receptor gene. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:824–30.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Muller CR, Halliger-Keller B, et al. Autosomal recessive inheritance of RYR1 mutations in a congenital myopathy with cores. Neurology. 2002;59:284–7.PubMed Jungbluth H, Muller CR, Halliger-Keller B, et al. Autosomal recessive inheritance of RYR1 mutations in a congenital myopathy with cores. Neurology. 2002;59:284–7.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Zhou H, Hartley L, et al. Minicore myopathy with ophthalmoplegia caused by mutations in the ryanodine receptor type 1 gene. Neurology. 2005;65:1930–5.PubMedCrossRef Jungbluth H, Zhou H, Hartley L, et al. Minicore myopathy with ophthalmoplegia caused by mutations in the ryanodine receptor type 1 gene. Neurology. 2005;65:1930–5.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference •• Wilmshurst JM, Lillis S, Zhou H, et al. RYR1 mutations are a common cause of congenital myopathies with central nuclei. Ann Neurol. 2010;68:717–26. This article shows that patients with RYR1 mutations have central nuclei on muscle biopsy especially early in the disease course. When biopsied later in life, many of these patients had developed cores. Overall, this supports that histopathological changes occur on a continuum and that the timing and location of muscle biopsy are important factors in diagnosis.PubMedCrossRef •• Wilmshurst JM, Lillis S, Zhou H, et al. RYR1 mutations are a common cause of congenital myopathies with central nuclei. Ann Neurol. 2010;68:717–26. This article shows that patients with RYR1 mutations have central nuclei on muscle biopsy especially early in the disease course. When biopsied later in life, many of these patients had developed cores. Overall, this supports that histopathological changes occur on a continuum and that the timing and location of muscle biopsy are important factors in diagnosis.PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Clarke NF, Waddell LB, Cooper ST, et al. Recessive mutations in RYR1 are a common cause of congenital fiber type disproportion. Hum Mutat. 2010;31:E1544–50.PubMedCrossRef Clarke NF, Waddell LB, Cooper ST, et al. Recessive mutations in RYR1 are a common cause of congenital fiber type disproportion. Hum Mutat. 2010;31:E1544–50.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference • Bevilacqua JA, Monnier N, Bitoun M, et al. Recessive RYR1 mutations cause unusual congenital myopathy with prominent nuclear internalization and large areas of myofibrillar disorganization. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2011;37:271–84. This is a second case series confirming that RYR1 mutations may be associated with central nuclei on muscle biopsy early in the disease course. Later muscle biopsies in some of these patients revealed core-like structures.PubMedCrossRef • Bevilacqua JA, Monnier N, Bitoun M, et al. Recessive RYR1 mutations cause unusual congenital myopathy with prominent nuclear internalization and large areas of myofibrillar disorganization. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2011;37:271–84. This is a second case series confirming that RYR1 mutations may be associated with central nuclei on muscle biopsy early in the disease course. Later muscle biopsies in some of these patients revealed core-like structures.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Davis MR, Muller C, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of muscle in congenital myopathies associated with RYR1 mutations. Neuromuscul Disord. 2004;14:785–90.PubMedCrossRef Jungbluth H, Davis MR, Muller C, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of muscle in congenital myopathies associated with RYR1 mutations. Neuromuscul Disord. 2004;14:785–90.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Klein A, Jungbluth H, Clement E, et al. Muscle magnetic resonance imaging in congenital myopathies due to ryanodine receptor type 1 gene mutations. Arch Neurol. 2011;68:1171–9.PubMedCrossRef Klein A, Jungbluth H, Clement E, et al. Muscle magnetic resonance imaging in congenital myopathies due to ryanodine receptor type 1 gene mutations. Arch Neurol. 2011;68:1171–9.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Boncompagni S, Rossi AE, Micaroni M, et al. Characterization and temporal development of cores in a mouse model of malignant hyperthermia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2009;106:21996–2001.PubMedCrossRef Boncompagni S, Rossi AE, Micaroni M, et al. Characterization and temporal development of cores in a mouse model of malignant hyperthermia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2009;106:21996–2001.PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference • Zvaritch E, Kraeva N, Bombardier E, et al. Ca2+ dysregulation in Ryr1(I4895T/wt) mice causes congenital myopathy with progressive formation of minicores, cores, and nemaline rods. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:21813–8. This article demonstrates that histopathological findings of minicores, cores, and rods occur on a continuum in this transgenic mouse model of RYR1-related myopathy.PubMedCrossRef • Zvaritch E, Kraeva N, Bombardier E, et al. Ca2+ dysregulation in Ryr1(I4895T/wt) mice causes congenital myopathy with progressive formation of minicores, cores, and nemaline rods. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:21813–8. This article demonstrates that histopathological findings of minicores, cores, and rods occur on a continuum in this transgenic mouse model of RYR1-related myopathy.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Arbogast S, Ferreiro A. Selenoproteins and protection against oxidative stress: selenoprotein N as a novel player at the crossroads of redox signaling and calcium homeostasis. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2009;12:893–904.CrossRef Arbogast S, Ferreiro A. Selenoproteins and protection against oxidative stress: selenoprotein N as a novel player at the crossroads of redox signaling and calcium homeostasis. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2009;12:893–904.CrossRef
61.
go back to reference Schara U, Kress W, Bonnemann CG, et al. The phenotype and long-term follow-up in 11 patients with juvenile selenoprotein N1-related myopathy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2008;12:224–30.PubMedCrossRef Schara U, Kress W, Bonnemann CG, et al. The phenotype and long-term follow-up in 11 patients with juvenile selenoprotein N1-related myopathy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2008;12:224–30.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Ferreiro A, Ceuterick-de Groote C, Marks JJ, et al. Desmin-related myopathy with Mallory body-like inclusions is caused by mutations of the selenoprotein N gene. Ann Neurol. 2004;55:676–86.PubMedCrossRef Ferreiro A, Ceuterick-de Groote C, Marks JJ, et al. Desmin-related myopathy with Mallory body-like inclusions is caused by mutations of the selenoprotein N gene. Ann Neurol. 2004;55:676–86.PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Scoto M, Cirak S, Mein R, et al. SEPN1-related myopathies: clinical course in a large cohort of patients. Neurology. 2011;76:2073–8.PubMedCrossRef Scoto M, Cirak S, Mein R, et al. SEPN1-related myopathies: clinical course in a large cohort of patients. Neurology. 2011;76:2073–8.PubMedCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Wallgren-Pettersson C, Laporte JF. 164th ENMC International workshop: 6th workshop on centronuclear (myotubular) myopathies, 16-18th January 2009, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:721–9.PubMedCrossRef Jungbluth H, Wallgren-Pettersson C, Laporte JF. 164th ENMC International workshop: 6th workshop on centronuclear (myotubular) myopathies, 16-18th January 2009, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord. 2009;19:721–9.PubMedCrossRef
65.
go back to reference Jurynec MJ, Xia R, Mackrill JJ, et al. Selenoprotein N is required for ryanodine receptor calcium release channel activity in human and zebrafish muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:12485–90.PubMedCrossRef Jurynec MJ, Xia R, Mackrill JJ, et al. Selenoprotein N is required for ryanodine receptor calcium release channel activity in human and zebrafish muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:12485–90.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Rederstorff M, Castets P, Arbogast S, et al. Increased muscle stress-sensitivity induced by selenoprotein N inactivation in mouse: a mammalian model for SEPN1-related myopathy. PLoS One 2011, 6:e23094. http://www.plosone.org/. Rederstorff M, Castets P, Arbogast S, et al. Increased muscle stress-sensitivity induced by selenoprotein N inactivation in mouse: a mammalian model for SEPN1-related myopathy. PLoS One 2011, 6:e23094. http://​www.​plosone.​org/​.
67.
go back to reference Laporte J, Hu LJ, Kretz C, et al. A gene mutated in X-linked myotubular myopathy defines a new putative tyrosine phosphatase family conserved in yeast. Nat Genet. 1996;13:175–82.PubMedCrossRef Laporte J, Hu LJ, Kretz C, et al. A gene mutated in X-linked myotubular myopathy defines a new putative tyrosine phosphatase family conserved in yeast. Nat Genet. 1996;13:175–82.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Shen D, Wang X, Xu H. Pairing phosphoinositides with calcium ions in endolysosomal dynamics: phosphoinositides control the direction and specificity of membrane trafficking by regulating the activity of calcium channels in the endolysosomes. Bioessays. 2011;33:448–57.PubMedCrossRef Shen D, Wang X, Xu H. Pairing phosphoinositides with calcium ions in endolysosomal dynamics: phosphoinositides control the direction and specificity of membrane trafficking by regulating the activity of calcium channels in the endolysosomes. Bioessays. 2011;33:448–57.PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Herman GE, Kopacz K, Zhao W, et al. Characterization of mutations in fifty North American patients with X-linked myotubular myopathy. Hum Mutat. 2002;19:114–21.PubMedCrossRef Herman GE, Kopacz K, Zhao W, et al. Characterization of mutations in fifty North American patients with X-linked myotubular myopathy. Hum Mutat. 2002;19:114–21.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Biancalana V, Caron O, Gallati S, et al. Characterisation of mutations in 77 patients with X-linked myotubular myopathy, including a family with a very mild phenotype. Hum Genet. 2003;112:135–42.PubMed Biancalana V, Caron O, Gallati S, et al. Characterisation of mutations in 77 patients with X-linked myotubular myopathy, including a family with a very mild phenotype. Hum Genet. 2003;112:135–42.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Tsai TC, Horinouchi H, Noguchi S, et al. Characterization of MTM1 mutations in 31 Japanese families with myotubular myopathy, including a patient carrying 240 kb deletion in Xq28 without male hypogenitalism. Neuromuscul Disord. 2005;15:245–52.PubMedCrossRef Tsai TC, Horinouchi H, Noguchi S, et al. Characterization of MTM1 mutations in 31 Japanese families with myotubular myopathy, including a patient carrying 240 kb deletion in Xq28 without male hypogenitalism. Neuromuscul Disord. 2005;15:245–52.PubMedCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Jungbluth H, Sewry CA, Buj-Bello A, et al. Early and severe presentation of X-linked myotubular myopathy in a girl with skewed X-inactivation. Neuromuscul Disord. 2003;13:55–9.PubMedCrossRef Jungbluth H, Sewry CA, Buj-Bello A, et al. Early and severe presentation of X-linked myotubular myopathy in a girl with skewed X-inactivation. Neuromuscul Disord. 2003;13:55–9.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Kristiansen M, Knudsen GP, Tanner SM, et al. X-inactivation patterns in carriers of X-linked myotubular myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2003;13:468–71.PubMedCrossRef Kristiansen M, Knudsen GP, Tanner SM, et al. X-inactivation patterns in carriers of X-linked myotubular myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2003;13:468–71.PubMedCrossRef
74.
75.
go back to reference • Bevilacqua JA, Bitoun M, Biancalana V, et al. “Necklace” fibers, a new histological marker of late-onset MTM1-related centronuclear myopathy. Acta Neuropathol. 2009;117:283–91. This article describes a new clinical and pathological phenotype of myotubular myopathy with sporadic, late onset and finding of necklace fibers on biopsy in male and female patients.PubMedCrossRef • Bevilacqua JA, Bitoun M, Biancalana V, et al. “Necklace” fibers, a new histological marker of late-onset MTM1-related centronuclear myopathy. Acta Neuropathol. 2009;117:283–91. This article describes a new clinical and pathological phenotype of myotubular myopathy with sporadic, late onset and finding of necklace fibers on biopsy in male and female patients.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference •• Dowling JJ, Vreede AP, Low SE, et al. Loss of myotubularin function results in T-tubule disorganization in zebrafish and human myotubular myopathy. PLoS Genet. 2009;5:e1000372. http://www.plosone.org/. This zebrafish model mimics human disease and shows that myotubularin is essential in establishing the architecture of the T-tubule, thereby causing defective calcium release from the sarcoplasmic and disrupting excitation-contraction coupling. Along with the MTM1 knockout mouse, this represents a useful animal model of myotubular myopathy. •• Dowling JJ, Vreede AP, Low SE, et al. Loss of myotubularin function results in T-tubule disorganization in zebrafish and human myotubular myopathy. PLoS Genet. 2009;5:e1000372. http://​www.​plosone.​org/​. This zebrafish model mimics human disease and shows that myotubularin is essential in establishing the architecture of the T-tubule, thereby causing defective calcium release from the sarcoplasmic and disrupting excitation-contraction coupling. Along with the MTM1 knockout mouse, this represents a useful animal model of myotubular myopathy.
77.
go back to reference Tiret L, Blot S, Kessler JL, et al. The cnm locus, a canine homologue of human autosomal forms of centronuclear myopathy, maps to chromosome 2. Hum Genet. 2003;113:297–306.PubMedCrossRef Tiret L, Blot S, Kessler JL, et al. The cnm locus, a canine homologue of human autosomal forms of centronuclear myopathy, maps to chromosome 2. Hum Genet. 2003;113:297–306.PubMedCrossRef
78.
go back to reference Buj-Bello A, Fougerousse F, Schwab Y, et al. AAV-mediated intramuscular delivery of myotubularin corrects the myotubular myopathy phenotype in targeted murine muscle and suggests a function in plasma membrane homeostasis. Hum Mol Genet. 2008;17:2132–43.PubMedCrossRef Buj-Bello A, Fougerousse F, Schwab Y, et al. AAV-mediated intramuscular delivery of myotubularin corrects the myotubular myopathy phenotype in targeted murine muscle and suggests a function in plasma membrane homeostasis. Hum Mol Genet. 2008;17:2132–43.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference •• Al-Qusairi L, Weiss N, Toussaint A, et al. T-tubule disorganization and defective excitation-contraction coupling in muscle fibers lacking myotubularin lipid phosphatase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:18763–8. This MTM1 mouse model recapitulates human disease and informs the understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying weakness in myotubular myopathy. Disruption of T-tubule architecture and calcium homeostasis contribute to weakness in myotubular myopathy.PubMedCrossRef •• Al-Qusairi L, Weiss N, Toussaint A, et al. T-tubule disorganization and defective excitation-contraction coupling in muscle fibers lacking myotubularin lipid phosphatase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:18763–8. This MTM1 mouse model recapitulates human disease and informs the understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying weakness in myotubular myopathy. Disruption of T-tubule architecture and calcium homeostasis contribute to weakness in myotubular myopathy.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference Lawlor MW, Read BP, Edelstein R, et al. Inhibition of activin receptor type IIB increases strength and lifespan in myotubularin-deficient mice. Am J Pathol. 2011;178:784–93.PubMedCrossRef Lawlor MW, Read BP, Edelstein R, et al. Inhibition of activin receptor type IIB increases strength and lifespan in myotubularin-deficient mice. Am J Pathol. 2011;178:784–93.PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference •• Robb SA, Sewry CA, Dowling JJ, et al. Impaired neuromuscular transmission and response to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in centronuclear myopathies. Neuromuscul Disord. 2011;21:379–86. Treatment of the MTM1 knockdown zebrafish with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors improves spontaneous and provoked movement, likely by potentiating calcium release from the SR. Treatment of several patients with pyridostigmine improved function.PubMedCrossRef •• Robb SA, Sewry CA, Dowling JJ, et al. Impaired neuromuscular transmission and response to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in centronuclear myopathies. Neuromuscul Disord. 2011;21:379–86. Treatment of the MTM1 knockdown zebrafish with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors improves spontaneous and provoked movement, likely by potentiating calcium release from the SR. Treatment of several patients with pyridostigmine improved function.PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Bitoun M, Maugenre S, Jeannet PY, et al. Mutations in dynamin 2 cause dominant centronuclear myopathy. Nat Genet. 2005;37:1207–9.PubMedCrossRef Bitoun M, Maugenre S, Jeannet PY, et al. Mutations in dynamin 2 cause dominant centronuclear myopathy. Nat Genet. 2005;37:1207–9.PubMedCrossRef
83.
go back to reference Durieux AC, Prudhon B, Guicheney P, et al. Dynamin 2 and human diseases. J Mol Med (Berl). 2010;88:339–50.CrossRef Durieux AC, Prudhon B, Guicheney P, et al. Dynamin 2 and human diseases. J Mol Med (Berl). 2010;88:339–50.CrossRef
84.
go back to reference Bitoun M, Bevilacqua JA, Prudhon B, et al. Dynamin 2 mutations cause sporadic centronuclear myopathy with neonatal onset. Ann Neurol. 2007;62:666–70.PubMedCrossRef Bitoun M, Bevilacqua JA, Prudhon B, et al. Dynamin 2 mutations cause sporadic centronuclear myopathy with neonatal onset. Ann Neurol. 2007;62:666–70.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Bitoun M, Bevilacqua JA, Eymard B, et al. A new centronuclear myopathy phenotype due to a novel dynamin 2 mutation. Neurology. 2009;72:93–5.PubMedCrossRef Bitoun M, Bevilacqua JA, Eymard B, et al. A new centronuclear myopathy phenotype due to a novel dynamin 2 mutation. Neurology. 2009;72:93–5.PubMedCrossRef
86.
go back to reference Koutsopoulos OS, Koch C, Tosch V, et al. Mild functional differences of dynamin 2 mutations associated to centronuclear myopathy and Charcot-Marie Tooth peripheral neuropathy. PLoS One 2011;6:e27498. http://www.plosone.org/. Koutsopoulos OS, Koch C, Tosch V, et al. Mild functional differences of dynamin 2 mutations associated to centronuclear myopathy and Charcot-Marie Tooth peripheral neuropathy. PLoS One 2011;6:e27498. http://​www.​plosone.​org/​.
87.
go back to reference Fischer D, Herasse M, Bitoun M, et al. Characterization of the muscle involvement in dynamin 2-related centronuclear myopathy. Brain. 2006;129:1463–9.PubMedCrossRef Fischer D, Herasse M, Bitoun M, et al. Characterization of the muscle involvement in dynamin 2-related centronuclear myopathy. Brain. 2006;129:1463–9.PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Susman RD, Quijano-Roy S, Yang N, et al. Expanding the clinical, pathological and MRI phenotype of DNM2-related centronuclear myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2010;20:229–37.PubMedCrossRef Susman RD, Quijano-Roy S, Yang N, et al. Expanding the clinical, pathological and MRI phenotype of DNM2-related centronuclear myopathy. Neuromuscul Disord. 2010;20:229–37.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Schessl J, Medne L, Hu Y, et al. MRI in DNM2-related centronuclear myopathy: evidence for highly selective muscle involvement. Neuromuscul Disord. 2007;17:28–32.PubMedCrossRef Schessl J, Medne L, Hu Y, et al. MRI in DNM2-related centronuclear myopathy: evidence for highly selective muscle involvement. Neuromuscul Disord. 2007;17:28–32.PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Hanisch F, Muller T, Dietz A, et al. Phenotype variability and histopathological findings in centronuclear myopathy due to DNM2 mutations. J Neurol. 2011;258:1085–90.PubMedCrossRef Hanisch F, Muller T, Dietz A, et al. Phenotype variability and histopathological findings in centronuclear myopathy due to DNM2 mutations. J Neurol. 2011;258:1085–90.PubMedCrossRef
91.
go back to reference Kenniston JA, Lemmon MA. Dynamin GTPase regulation is altered by PH domain mutations found in centronuclear myopathy patients. EMBO J. 2010;29:3054–67.PubMedCrossRef Kenniston JA, Lemmon MA. Dynamin GTPase regulation is altered by PH domain mutations found in centronuclear myopathy patients. EMBO J. 2010;29:3054–67.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Wang L, Barylko B, Byers C, et al. Dynamin 2 mutants linked to centronuclear myopathies form abnormally stable polymers. J Biol Chem. 2010;285:22753–7.PubMedCrossRef Wang L, Barylko B, Byers C, et al. Dynamin 2 mutants linked to centronuclear myopathies form abnormally stable polymers. J Biol Chem. 2010;285:22753–7.PubMedCrossRef
93.
go back to reference Durieux AC, Vignaud A, Prudhon B, et al. A centronuclear myopathy-dynamin 2 mutation impairs skeletal muscle structure and function in mice. Hum Mol Genet. 2010;19:4820–36.PubMedCrossRef Durieux AC, Vignaud A, Prudhon B, et al. A centronuclear myopathy-dynamin 2 mutation impairs skeletal muscle structure and function in mice. Hum Mol Genet. 2010;19:4820–36.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Cowling BS, Toussaint A, Amoasii L, et al. Increased expression of wild-type or a centronuclear myopathy mutant of dynamin 2 in skeletal muscle of adult mice leads to structural defects and muscle weakness. Am J Pathol. 2011;178:2224–35.PubMedCrossRef Cowling BS, Toussaint A, Amoasii L, et al. Increased expression of wild-type or a centronuclear myopathy mutant of dynamin 2 in skeletal muscle of adult mice leads to structural defects and muscle weakness. Am J Pathol. 2011;178:2224–35.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Takei K, Slepnev VI, Haucke V, et al. Functional partnership between amphiphysin and dynamin in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Nat Cell Biol. 1999;1:33–9.PubMedCrossRef Takei K, Slepnev VI, Haucke V, et al. Functional partnership between amphiphysin and dynamin in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Nat Cell Biol. 1999;1:33–9.PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Lee E, Marcucci M, Daniell L, et al. Amphiphysin 2 (Bin1) and T-tubule biogenesis in muscle. Science. 2002;297:1193–6.PubMedCrossRef Lee E, Marcucci M, Daniell L, et al. Amphiphysin 2 (Bin1) and T-tubule biogenesis in muscle. Science. 2002;297:1193–6.PubMedCrossRef
98.
go back to reference Razzaq A, Robinson IM, McMahon HT, et al. Amphiphysin is necessary for organization of the excitation-contraction coupling machinery of muscles, but not for synaptic vesicle endocytosis in Drosophila. Genes Dev. 2001;15:2967–2979.PubMedCrossRef Razzaq A, Robinson IM, McMahon HT, et al. Amphiphysin is necessary for organization of the excitation-contraction coupling machinery of muscles, but not for synaptic vesicle endocytosis in Drosophila. Genes Dev. 2001;15:2967–2979.PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Nicot AS, Toussaint A, Tosch V, et al. Mutations in amphiphysin 2 (BIN1) disrupt interaction with dynamin 2 and cause autosomal recessive centronuclear myopathy. Nat Genet. 2007;39:1134–9.PubMedCrossRef Nicot AS, Toussaint A, Tosch V, et al. Mutations in amphiphysin 2 (BIN1) disrupt interaction with dynamin 2 and cause autosomal recessive centronuclear myopathy. Nat Genet. 2007;39:1134–9.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference •• Toussaint A, Cowling BS, Hnia K, et al. Defects in amphiphysin 2 (BIN1) and triads in several forms of centronuclear myopathies. Acta Neuropathol. 2011;121:253–66. This article demonstrates that all three mutations involved in myopathies with central nuclei have a common mechanism of pathogenicity involving disruption of T-tubule architecture and function.PubMedCrossRef •• Toussaint A, Cowling BS, Hnia K, et al. Defects in amphiphysin 2 (BIN1) and triads in several forms of centronuclear myopathies. Acta Neuropathol. 2011;121:253–66. This article demonstrates that all three mutations involved in myopathies with central nuclei have a common mechanism of pathogenicity involving disruption of T-tubule architecture and function.PubMedCrossRef
101.
102.
go back to reference Malicdan MC, Nishino I. Central core disease. GeneReviews at GeneTests: Medical Genetics Information Resource. http://www.genetests.org. Updated May 11, 2010. Accessed January 16, 2012. Malicdan MC, Nishino I. Central core disease. GeneReviews at GeneTests: Medical Genetics Information Resource. http://​www.​genetests.​org. Updated May 11, 2010. Accessed January 16, 2012.
103.
go back to reference Das S, Dowling J, Pierson C. X-Linked centronuclear myopathy. GeneReviews at GeneTests: Medical Genetics Information Resource. http://www.genetests.org. Updated October 6, 2011 Accessed January 16. 2012. Das S, Dowling J, Pierson C. X-Linked centronuclear myopathy. GeneReviews at GeneTests: Medical Genetics Information Resource. http://​www.​genetests.​org. Updated October 6, 2011 Accessed January 16. 2012.
105.
go back to reference de Haan A, van der Vliet MR, Gommans IM, et al. Skeletal muscle of mice with a mutation in slow alpha-tropomyosin is weaker at lower lengths. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:952–7.PubMedCrossRef de Haan A, van der Vliet MR, Gommans IM, et al. Skeletal muscle of mice with a mutation in slow alpha-tropomyosin is weaker at lower lengths. Neuromuscul Disord. 2002;12:952–7.PubMedCrossRef
106.
go back to reference Hirata H, Watanabe T, Hatakeyama J, et al. Zebrafish relatively relaxed mutants have a ryanodine receptor defect, show slow swimming and provide a model of multi-minicore disease. Development. 2007;134:2771–81.PubMedCrossRef Hirata H, Watanabe T, Hatakeyama J, et al. Zebrafish relatively relaxed mutants have a ryanodine receptor defect, show slow swimming and provide a model of multi-minicore disease. Development. 2007;134:2771–81.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Congenital Myopathies: An Update
Authors
Jessica R. Nance
James J. Dowling
Elizabeth M. Gibbs
Carsten G. Bönnemann
Publication date
01-04-2012
Publisher
Current Science Inc.
Published in
Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports / Issue 2/2012
Print ISSN: 1528-4042
Electronic ISSN: 1534-6293
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-012-0255-x

Other articles of this Issue 2/2012

Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 2/2012 Go to the issue

Sleep (M Thorpy and M Billiard, Section Editors)

Effects of Circadian Disruption on Mental and Physical Health

Pediatric Neurology (R Packer, Section Editor)

Neurodiagnostic Techniques in Neonatal Critical Care

Sleep (M Thorpy and M Billiard, Section Editors)

Sleep-Disordered Breathing in Neurodegenerative Diseases