Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

LIVE: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)
Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Current Diabetes Reports
Published in: Current Diabetes Reports 1/2012

01-02-2012 | Diabetes and Pregnancy (CJ Homko, Section Editor)

Care of the Infant of the Diabetic Mother

Author: William W. Hay Jr.

Published in: Current Diabetes Reports | Issue 1/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) from all causes of diabetes is the most common medical complication of pregnancy and is increasing in incidence, particularly as type 2 diabetes continues to increase worldwide. Despite advances in perinatal care, infants of diabetic mothers (IDMs) remain at risk for a multitude of physiologic, metabolic, and congenital complications such as preterm birth, macrosomia, asphyxia, respiratory distress, hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, hyperbilirubinemia, polycythemia and hyperviscosity, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and congenital anomalies, particularly of the central nervous system. Overt type 1 diabetes around conception produces marked risk of embryopathy (neural tube defects, cardiac defects, caudal regression syndrome), whereas later in gestation, severe and unstable type 1 maternal diabetes carries a higher risk of intrauterine growth restriction, asphyxia, and fetal death. IDMs born to mothers with type 2 diabetes are more commonly obese (macrosomic) with milder conditions of the common problems found in IDMs. IDMs from all causes of GDM also are predisposed to later-life risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Care of the IDM neonate needs to focus on ensuring adequate cardiorespiratory adaptation at birth, possible birth injuries, maintenance of normal glucose metabolism, and close observation for polycythemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and feeding intolerance.
Literature
1.
2.
Schwartz R, Teramo KA. Effects of diabetic pregnancy on the fetus and newborn. Semin Perinatol. 2000;24:120–35.PubMedCrossRef
3.
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28 Suppl 1:S4–S36.CrossRef
4.
Chu SY, Callaghan WM, Kim SY, et al. Maternal obesity and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2070–6.PubMedCrossRef
5.
Cowett RM. The infant of the diabetic mother. Neo Rev. 2002;3:el73–89.
6.
Crowther CA, Hiller E, Moss R, et al. Australian Carbohydrate intolerance Study in pregnant women (ACHOIS) Trial Group. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2477–86.PubMedCrossRef
7.
Yang JB, Cummings EA, O’Connell CP, Jangaard KMD. Fetal and neonatal outcomes of diabetic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:644–50.PubMedCrossRef
8.
Meur S, Mann NP. Infant outcomes following diabetic pregnancies. Paediatrics and Child Health. 2007;17:217–22.CrossRef
9.
Cowett RM, Schwartz R. The infant of the diabetic mother. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1982;29:1213–31.PubMed
10.
Cordero L, Treuer SH, Landon MB, Gabbe SG. Management of infants of diabetic mothers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152:249–54.PubMed
11.
Anonymous. The Confidential Enquiry Into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH). Diabetes in pregnancy: caring for the baby after birth. Findings of a National Enquiry: England, Wales and Northern Ireland. London: CEMACH; 2007.
12.
13.
Elixhauser A, Weschler JM, Kitzmiller JL, et al. Cost-benefit analysis of preconception care for women with established diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:1146–57.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Weindling MA. Offspring of diabetic pregnancy: short-term outcomes. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:111–8.CrossRef
15.
Visser GHA, Evers IM, Giorgio Mello G. Management of the macrosomic fetus. In: Hod M, Jovanovic L, Di Renzo GC, De Leiva A, Langer O, editors. Textbook of Diabetes & Pregnancy. 2nd ed. London: Informa; 2008.
16.
Carver TD, Anderson SM, Aldoretta PW, Hay Jr WW. Effect of low-level basal plus marked “pulsatile” hyperglycemia on insulin secretion in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(Endo. Metab 34):E865–71.PubMed
17.
Hay Jr WW. Nutrition and development of the fetus: carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (Chapter 28). In: Walker WA, Watkins JB, Duggan CP, editors. Nutrition in Pediatrics (Basic Science and Clinical Applications). 4th ed. BC Decker Inc Publisher, Hamilton, Ontario: Canada; 2008. p. 311–25.
18.
Ouzilleau C, Roy MA, Leblanc L, et al. An observational study comparing 2-hour 75-g oral glucose tolerance with fasting plasma glucose in pregnant women: both poorly predictive of birth weight. CMAJ. 2003;168:403–9.PubMed
19.
Knopp RH, Magee MS, Walden CE, et al. Prediction of infant birth weight by GDM screening tests. Importance of plasma triglyceride. Diabetes Care. 1992;11:1605–13.CrossRef
20.
Son GH, Kwon JY, Kim YH, Park YW. Maternal serum triglycerides as predictive factors for large-for-gestational age newborns in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2010;89:700–4.PubMedCrossRef
21.
Di Cianni G, Miccoli R, Volpe L, et al. Maternal triglyceride levels and newborn weight in pregnant women with normal glucose tolerance. Diabet Med. 2005;22:21–5.PubMedCrossRef
22.
Kitajima M, Oka S, Yasuhi I, et al. Maternal serum triglyceride at 24–32 weeks’ gestation and newborn weight in nondiabetic women with positive diabetic screens. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97:776–80.PubMedCrossRef
23.
24.
Schaefer-Graf UM, Graf K, Kulbacka I, et al. Maternal lipids as strong determinants of fetal environment and growth in pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1858–63.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Wagner RK, Nielson PE, Gonik B. Controversies in labor management: shoulder dystocia. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1999;26:371–83.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Mimouni F, Miodovnik M, Siddiqi T, et al. Perinatal asphyxia in infants of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. J Pediatr. 1988;113:345.PubMedCrossRef
27.
Bard H, Prosmanne J. Relative rates of fetal hemoglobin and adult hemoglobin synthesis in cord blood infants of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. Pediatrics. 1987;75:1143–7.
28.
Morris MA, Grandis AS, Litton JC. Glycosylated hemoglobin concentration in early gestation associated with neonatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;153:651–4.PubMed
29.
Regnault TRH, Limesand SW, Hay Jr WW. Aspects of fetoplacental nutrition in intrauterine growth restriction and Macrosomia. In: Thureen PJ, Hay Jr WW, editors. Neonatal Nutrition and Metabolism. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2006. p. 32–46.CrossRef
30.
Hay Jr WW. Recent observations on the regulation of fetal metabolism by glucose. J Physiol. 2006;572:17–24.PubMed
31.
Hay Jr WW. Nutrient delivery and metabolism in the fetus. In: Hod M, Jovanovic L, Di Renzo GC, de Leiva A, Langer O, editors. Textbook of Diabetes and Pregnancy. London: Martin Dunitz; 2003. p. 201–21.
32.
Persson B. Neonatal glucose metabolism in offspring of mothers with varying degrees of hyperglycemia during pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:106–10.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Gustafsson J. Neonatal energy substrate production. Indian J Med Res. 2009;130:618–23.PubMed
34.
Sunehag A, Ewald U, Larsson A, Gustafsson J. Attenuated hepatic glucose production but unimpaired lipolysis in newborn infants of mothers with diabetes. Pediatr Res. 1997;42:492–7.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Ahlsson FS, Diderholm B, Ewald U, Gustafsson J. Lipolysis and insulin sensitivity at birth in infants who are large for gestational age. Pediatrics. 2007;120:958–65.PubMedCrossRef
36.
Cornblath M, Hawdon JM, Williams AF, et al. Controversies regarding definition of neonatal hypoglycemia: suggested operational thresholds. Pediatrics. 2000;105:1141–5.PubMedCrossRef
37.
•• American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Screening and management of postnatal glucose homeostasis in late preterm and term SGA and LGA/IDM infants. Pediatrics 2011, 127:575–579. This article is the latest effort by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) to provide rational guidelines for management of glucose metabolism and concentrations in newborn infants. Although the AAP recommended allowing asymptomatic infants, especially those breastfed, to have slightly lower glucose concentrations than previously preferred, the AAP continues to emphasize that IDMs and even LGA infants (many LGA infants are simply missed IDMs, usually from type 2 and/or obese mothers) should be monitored earlier and more frequently and treated earlier and with less bolus approaches. CrossRef
38.
Ward-Platt M, Deshpande S. Metabolic adaptations at birth. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2005;10:341–50.PubMedCrossRef
39.
Heck IJ, Erenberg A. Serum glucose levels in term neonates during the first 48 hours of life. J Pediatr. 1987;110:119–22.PubMedCrossRef
40.
Rozance PJ, Hay Jr WW. Hypoglycemia in newborn infants: features associated with adverse outcomes. Biol Neonate. 2006;90:74–86.PubMedCrossRef
41.
Rozance PJ, Hay, WW, Jr. Describing hypoglycemia - definition or operational threshold? Invited Review in: Hawdon. J., Guest Editor, Neonatal Hypoglycaemia. Best Practice Guidelines. Early Human Development 2010, 86:275–280.
42.
Lilien LD, Pildes RS, Srinivasan G, et al. Treatment of neonatal hypoglycemia with minibolus and intravenous glucose infusion. J Pediatr. 1980;97:295–8.PubMedCrossRef
43.
•• Harris DL, Battin MR, Weston PJ, Harding JE. Continuous glucose monitoring in newborn babies at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia. Journal of Pediatrics 2010, 157:198–202. Continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring could help define glucose concentrations previously unrecognized that contribute to complications, it could exonerate glucose concentrations previously thought to cause complications, or it could lead to excessive and unnecessary treatments. Time and experience will tell. This article provides novel data establishing the validity of this new technology and the potential to be a useful and perhaps important addition to monitoring neonatal glycemia and treatments for both high and low glucose concentrations. PubMedCrossRef
44.
Platas II, Lluch MT, Alminana NP, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in infants of very low birth weight. Neonatology. 2009;95:217–23.CrossRef
45.
Beardsall K, Ogilvy-Stuart A, Ahluwalia J, et al. The continuous glucose monitoring sensor in neonatal intensive care. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2005;90:F307–10.PubMedCrossRef
46.
Hay Jr WW, Rozance PJ. Continuous glucose monitoring for diagnosis and treatment of neonatal hypoglycemia. Invited Editorial Commentary regarding Harris DL, Battin MR, Weston PJ, Harding JE. Continuous glucose monitoring in newborn babies at risk of hypoglycaemia. J Pediatr. 2010;157:180–2.PubMedCrossRef
47.
Boluyt N, van Kempen A, Offringa M. Neurodevelopment after neonatal hypoglycaemia: a systematic review and design of an optimal future study. Pediatrics. 2006;117:2231–43.PubMedCrossRef
48.
Salhab WA, Wyckoff MH, Laptook AR, Perlman JM. Initial hypoglycemia and neonatal brain injury in term infants with severe fetal acidemia. Pediatrics. 2004;114:361–6.PubMedCrossRef
49.
De Leon DD, Stanley CA. Mechanism of disease: advances in diagnosis and treatment of hyperinsulinism. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3:57–8.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Meissner T, Brune W, Mayatepek E. Persistent hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia of infancy: therapy, clinical outcome and mutational analysis. Eur J Pediatr. 1997;156:754–7.PubMedCrossRef
51.
52.
Beardsall K, Vanhaesebrouck S, Ogilvy-Stuart A, et al. Early insulin therapy in very low birth weight infants. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1873–84.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Cruikshank DP, Pitkin RM, Varner MW, et al. Calcium metabolism in diabetic mother, fetus, and newborn infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;135:1010–6.
54.
Banerjee S, Mimouni FB, Mehta R, et al. Lower whole blood ionized magnesium concentration in hypocalcemic infants of gestational diabetic mothers. Magnes Res. 2003;16:127–30.PubMed
55.
Mimouni F, Loughead J, Miodovnik M, et al. Early neonatal predictors of neonatal hypocalcemia in infants of diabetic mothers: an epidemiologic study. Am J Perinatol. 1990;7:203–6.PubMedCrossRef
56.
Demarini S, Minouni F, Tsang RC, et al. Impact of metabolic control of diabetes during pregnancy on neonatal hypocalcemia: a randomized study. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;83:918–22.PubMedCrossRef
57.
Widness JA. Fetal risks and neonatal complications of diabetes mellitus and metabolic and endocrine disorders. In: Brody SA, Ueland K, editors. Endocrine disorders in pregnancy. Norwalk (CT): Appleton-Lange; 1989. p. 273–97.
58.
Widness JA, Susa JB, Garcia JF, et al. Increased erythropoiesis and elevated erythropoietin in infants born to diabetic mothers and hyperinsulinemic rhesus fetuses. J Clin Invest. 1981;67:637–42.PubMedCrossRef
59.
Warshaw JB, Hay Jr WW. Infant of the diabetic mother. In: McMillan J, DeAngelis C, Feigin R, Warshaw JB, editors. Oski’s Pediatrics: Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 423–7.
60.
Cetin H, Yalaz M, Akisu M, Kultursay N. Polycythaemia in Infants of Diabetic Mothers: β-Hydroxybutyrate Stimulates Erythropoietic Activity. J Int Med Res. 2011;39:815–21.PubMed
61.
Manco-Johnson MJ, Carver T, Jacobson LJ, et al. Hyperglycemia-induced hyperinsulinemia decreases maternal and fetal plasma protein C concentration during ovine gestation. Pediatr Res. 1994;36:293–9.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Gewob IH, O’Brien J. Surfactant secretion by type II pneumocytes in inhibited by high glucose concentrations. Exp Lung Res. 1997;23:245–55.CrossRef
63.
Gewolb IH. Effect of high glucose on fetal lung maturation at different times in gestation. Exp Lung Res. 1996;22:201–11.PubMedCrossRef
64.
Gewolb IH, Torday JS. High glucose inhibits maturation of the fetal lung in vitro. Morphometric analysis of lamellar bodies and fibroblast lipid inclusions. Lab Invest. 1995;73:59–63.PubMed
65.
Rayani HH, Gewolb IH, Floras J. Glucose decreases steady state mRNA content of hydrophobic surfactant proteins B and C in fetal rat lung explants. Exp Lung Res. 1999;25:69–79.PubMedCrossRef
66.
Sugahar K, Lyama K, Sano K, Morioka T. Differential expressions of surfactant protein SP-A, SP-B, and SP-C mRNAs in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes demonstrated by in situ hybridization. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1994;11:397–404.
67.
Ikeda H, Shiojima I, Oka T, et al. Increased Akt-mTOR signaling in lung epithelium is associated with respiratory distress syndrome in mice. Mol Cell Biol. 2011;3:1054–65.CrossRef
68.
• Lisowski LA, Verheijen PM, Copel JA, et al.: Congenital heart disease in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabaetes mellitus. An international clinical collaboration, literature review, and meta-analysis. Herz 2010, 35:19–26. This article reviews the current experience with the high incidence of congenital heart disease in diabetic pregnancies. PubMedCrossRef
69.
Rolo LC, Marcondes Machado Nardozza L, Araujo Junior E, et al. Reference curve of the fetal ventricular septum area by the STIC method: preliminary study. Arg Bras Cardiol. 2011;96:386–92.CrossRef
70.
Mongiovi M, Fesslova V, Fazio G, et al. Diagnosis and prognosis of fetal cardiomyopathies: a review. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16:2929–34.PubMed
71.
Verhaeghe J, van Bree R, Van Herck E. Oxidant balance markers at birth in relation to glycemic and acid–base parameters. Metabolism. 2011;60:71–7.PubMedCrossRef
72.
Kaiser N, Sasson S, Feener EP, et al. Differential regulation of glucose transport and transporters by glucose in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Diabetes. 1993;42:80–9.PubMedCrossRef
73.
Clark RJ, McDonough PM, Swanson E, et al. Diabetes and the accompanying hyperglycemia impairs cardiomyocyte calcium cycling through increased nuclear O-GlcNAcylation. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:44230–7.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Korshunov SS, Skulachev VP, Starkov AA. High protonic potential actuates a mechanism of production of reactive oxygen species in mitochondria. FEBS Lett. 1997;416:15–8.PubMedCrossRef
75.
Brownlee M. The pathobiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism. Diabetes. 2005;54:1615–25.PubMedCrossRef
76.
Ralser M, Wamelink MM, Kowald A, et al. Dynamic rerouting of the carbohydrate flux is key to counteracting oxidative stress. J Biol. 2007;6:10–28.PubMedCrossRef
77.
Du X, Matsumura T, Edelstein D, et al. Inhibition of GAPDH activity by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activates three major pathways of hyperglycemic damage in endothelial cells. J Clin Invest. 2003;112:1049–57.PubMed
78.
Gabbay KH, Merola LO, Field RA. Sorbitol pathway: presence in nerve and cord with substrate accumulation in diabetes. Science. 1966;151:209–10.PubMedCrossRef
79.
McLellan AC, Thornalley PJ, Benn J, Sonksen PH. Glyoxalase system in clinical diabetes mellitus and correlation with diabetic complications. Clin Sci (Lond). 1994;87:21–9.
80.
Koya D, King GL. Protein kinase C activation and the development of diabetic complications. Diabetes. 1998;47:859–66.PubMedCrossRef
81.
Yan SF, Ramasamy R, Naka Y, Schmidt AM. Glycation, inflammation, and RAGE: a scaffold for the macrovascular complications of diabetes and beyond. Circ Res. 2003;93:1159–69.PubMedCrossRef
82.
Ahmed MU, Brinkmann FE, Degenhardt TP, et al. N-epsilon-(carboxyethyl)lysine, a product of the chemical modification of proteins by methylglyoxal, increases with age in human lens proteins. Biochem J. 1997;324:565–70.PubMed
83.
Ikeda K, Higashi T, Sano H, et al. (epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine protein adduct is a major immunological epitope in proteins modified with advanced glycation end products of the Maillard reaction. Biochemistry. 1996;35:8075–83.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Casson F, Clarke CA, Howard CV, et al. Outcomes of pregnancy in insulin dependent diabetic women: results of a five year population study. Br Med J. 1997;315:275–8.CrossRef
85.
Jenson DM, Damm P, Moelsted-Pederson L, et al. Outcomes in type 1 diabetic pregnancies: a nationwide, population-based study. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2819–23.CrossRef
86.
Doblado M, Moley KH. Glucose metabolism in pregnancy and embryogenesis. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2007;14:488–93.PubMedCrossRef
87.
Kalhan SC, Parimi PS, Lindsay CA. Pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus. In: Fanaroff AA, Martin RJ, editors. Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine: diseases of the Fetus and Infant. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby; 2002. p. 1357–62.
88.
Volpe JJ. Neonatal seizures. In: Volpe JJ, editor. Neurology of the newborn. 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2001. p. 178–216.
89.
Bromiker R, Rachamim A, Hammerman C, et al. Immature sucking patterns in infants of mothers with diabetes. J Pediatr. 2006;149(5):640–3.PubMedCrossRef
90.
Barnes-Powell LL. Infants of diabetic mothers: The effects of hyperglycemia on the fetus and neonate. Neonatal Netw. 2007;26:283–90.PubMedCrossRef
91.
Petry CD, Wobken JD, McKay H, et al. Placental transferrin receptor in diabetic pregnancies with increased fetal iron demand. Am J Physiol. 1994;267:E507–14.PubMed
92.
Eidelman AI, Samueloff A. The pathophysiology of the fetus of the diabetic mother. Semin Perinatol. 2002;26:232–6.PubMedCrossRef
93.
Lozoff B, Jimenez E, Hagen J, et al. Poorer behavioral and developmental outcome more than 10 years after treatment for iron deficiency in infancy. Pediatrics. 2000;105:E51.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Connor JR, Menzies SL. Relationship of iron to oligodendrocytes and myelination. Glia. 1996;17:83–93.PubMedCrossRef
95.
deUngria M, Rao R, Wobken JD, et al. Perinatal iron deficiency decreases cytochrome c oxidase (cytox) activity in selected regions of neonatal rat brain. Pediatr Res. 2003;133:1174–9.
96.
Beard J. Neonatal iron deficiency results in irreversible changes in dopamine function in rats. J Nutr. 2003;133:1174–9.PubMed
97.
Rao R, deUngria M, Sullivan D, et al. Perinatal brain iron deficiency increases the vulnerability of rat hippocampus to hypoxic ischemic insult. J Nutr. 1999;129:199–206.PubMed
98.
deReginer RA, Nelson CA, Thomas KM, et al. Neurophysiologic evaluation of auditory recognition memory in healthy newborn infants and infants of diabetic mothers. J Pediatr. 2000;127:777–84.
99.
Ellis H, Kumar R, Kostyrka B. Neonatal small left colon syndrome in the offspring of diabetic mothers-an analysis of 105 children. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44:2343–246.PubMedCrossRef
100.
Dabelea D. The predisposition to obesity and diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care. 2007;30 Suppl 2:S169–74.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Baptiste-Roberts K, Nicholson WK, Brancati FL. Gestational diabetes and subsequent growth patterns of offspring: The National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Matern Child Health J 2011, [Epub ahead of print].
102.
Thorn SR, Regnault TRH, Brown LD, et al. Intrauterine growth restriction increases fetal hepatic gluconeogenic capacity and reduces hepatic and skeletal muscle mRNA translation initiation and nutrient sensing. Endocrinology. 2009;150:3021–30.PubMedCrossRef
103.
Thorn SR, Rozance PJ, Brown LD, Hay Jr WW. The Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) phenotype: fetal adaptations and potential implications for later life insulin resistance and diabetes. Semin Reprod Med. 2011;29:225–36.PubMedCrossRef
104.
Barker DJ, Hales CN, Fall CH, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark PM. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia. 1993;36:62–7.PubMedCrossRef
105.
•• Dabelea D, Crume T. Maternal environment and the transgenerational cycle of obesity and diabetes. Diabetes 2011, 60:1849–1855. Diabetes begets diabetes, by epigenetic as well as genetic processes. This article reviews the environmental input to the epigenetic processes, which are becoming more well recognized as causes of later diabetes in the offspring and particularly GDM in female offspring. PubMedCrossRef
106.
Burguet A. Long-term outcome in children of mothers with gestational diabetes. Diabetes Metab. 2010;36:682–94.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Care of the Infant of the Diabetic Mother
Author
William W. Hay Jr.
Publication date
01-02-2012
Publisher
Current Science Inc.
Published in
Current Diabetes Reports / Issue 1/2012
Print ISSN: 1534-4827
Electronic ISSN: 1539-0829
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-011-0243-6

Other articles of this Issue 1/2012

Current Diabetes Reports 1/2012 Go to the issue

Invited Commentary

The Adjectives of Inpatient Glycemic Management

Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes (M Freemark, Section Editor)

Type 2 Diabetes in Childhood: Clinical Characteristics and Role of β-Cell Autoimmunity

Diabetes and Pregnancy (CJ Homko, Section Editor)

The Placenta and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes and Pregnancy (CJ Homko, Section Editor)

Metabolic Programming, Epigenetics, and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes and Pregnancy (CJ Homko, Section Editor)

Gestational Diabetes: Implications for Cardiovascular Health

Hospital Management of Diabetes (M Korytkowski, Section Editor)

Basal-Bolus Insulin Protocols Enter the Computer Age
Live Webinar | 27-06-2024 | 18:00 (CEST)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Reserve your place

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

WHO estimates that half of all patients worldwide are non-adherent to their prescribed medication. The consequences of poor adherence can be catastrophic, on both the individual and population level.

Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.

Prof. Kevin Dolgin
Prof. Florian Limbourg
Prof. Anoop Chauhan
Developed by: Springer Medicine
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

Read more

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine
Image Credits