Top

Published in:

01-07-2007 | Review Article

Animal Models of Neurodegenerative Disease: Insights from In vivo Imaging Studies

Authors: Elissa M. Strome, Doris J. Doudet

Published in: Molecular Imaging and Biology | Issue 4/2007

Abstract

Animal models have been used extensively to understand the etiology and pathophysiology of human neurodegenerative diseases, and are an essential component in the development of therapeutic interventions for these disorders. In recent years, technical advances in imaging modalities such as positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have allowed the use of these techniques for the evaluation of functional, neurochemical, and anatomical changes in the brains of animals. Combining animal models of neurodegenerative disorders with neuroimaging provides a powerful tool to follow the disease process, to examine compensatory mechanisms, and to investigate the effects of potential treatments preclinically to derive knowledge that will ultimately inform our clinical decisions. This article reviews the literature on the use of PET and MRI in animal models of Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease, and evaluates the strengths and limitations of brain imaging in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases.

Sanchez-Pernaute R, Brownell AL, Jenkins BG, Isacson O (2005) Insights into Parkinson’s disease models and neurotoxicity using non-invasive imaging. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 207:251–256PubMedCrossRef

Doudet DJ, Chan GL, Holden JE et al. (1998) 6-[¹⁸F]Fluoro-L-DOPA PET studies of the turnover of dopamine in MPTP-induced parkinsonism in monkeys. Synapse 29:225–232PubMedCrossRef

Melega WP, Raleigh MJ, Stout DB et al. (1996) Longitudinal behavioral and 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-L-DOPA-PET assessment in MPTP-hemiparkinsonian monkeys. Exp Neurol 141:318–329PubMedCrossRef

Schneider JS, Lidsky TI, Hawks T, Mazziotta JC, Hoffman JM (1995) Differential recovery of volitional motor function, lateralized cognitive function, dopamine agonist-induced rotation and dopaminergic parameters in monkeys made hemi-parkinsonian by intracarotid MPTP infusion. Brain Res 672:112–117PubMedCrossRef

Doudet DJ, Wyatt RJ, Cannon-Spoor E et al. (1993) 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-L-dopa and cerebral blood flow in unilaterally MPTP-treated monkeys. J Neural Transpl Plast 4:27–38CrossRef

Yee RE, Irwin I, Milonas C et al. (2001) Novel observations with FDOPA-PET imaging after early nigrostriatal damage. Mov Disord 16:838–848PubMedCrossRef

Guttman M, Yong VW, Kim SU et al. (1988) Asymptomatic striatal dopamine depletion: PET scans in unilateral MPTP monkeys. Synapse 2:469–473PubMedCrossRef

Doudet DJ, Miyake H, Finn RT et al. (1989) 6-¹⁸F-L-dopa imaging of the dopamine neostriatal system in normal and clinically normal MPTP-treated rhesus monkeys. Exp Brain Res 78:69–80PubMedCrossRef

Eberling JL, Pivirotto P, Bringas J, Bankiewicz KS (2000) Tremor is associated with PET measures of nigrostriatal dopamine function in MPTP-lesioned monkeys. Exp Neurol 165:342–346PubMedCrossRef

10.

Eberling JL, Bankiewicz KS, Jordan S, VanBrocklin HF, Jagust WJ (1997) PET studies of functional compensation in a primate model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuroreport 8:2727–2733PubMedCrossRef

11.

Hantraye P, Brownell AL, Elmaleh D et al. (1992) Dopamine fiber detection by [¹¹C]-CFT and PET in a primate model of parkinsonism. NeuroReport 3:265–268PubMedCrossRef

12.

Wullner U, Pakzaban P, Brownell AL et al. (1994) Dopamine terminal loss and onset of motor symptoms in MPTP-treated monkeys: a positron emission tomography study with ¹¹C-CFT. Exp Neurol 126:305–309PubMedCrossRef

13.

Brownell AL, Canales K, Chen YI et al. (2003) Mapping of brain function after MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in a primate Parkinson’s disease model. NeuroImage 20:1064–1075PubMedCrossRef

14.

Brownell AL, Jenkins BG, Isacson O (1999) Dopamine imaging markers and predictive mathematical models for progressive degeneration in Parkinson’s disease. Biomed Pharmacother 53:131–140PubMedCrossRef

15.

Brownell AL, Jenkins BG, Elmaleh DR et al. (1998) Combined PET/MRS brain studies show dynamic and long-term physiological changes in a primate model of Parkinson disease. Nat Med 4:1308–1312PubMedCrossRef

16.

Poyot T, Conde F, Gregoire MC et al. (2001) Anatomic and biochemical correlates of the dopamine transporter ligand ¹¹C-PE2I in normal and parkinsonian primates: comparison with 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-L-dopa. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 21:782–792PubMedCrossRef

17.

Doudet DJ, Jivan S, Ruth TJ, Holden JE (2002) Density and affinity of the dopamine D₂ receptors in aged symptomatic and asymptomatic MPTP-treated monkeys: PET studies with [¹¹C]raclopride. Synapse 44:198–202PubMedCrossRef

18.

Hantraye P, Loc’h C, Tacke U et al. (1986) “In vivo” visualization by positron emission tomography of the progressive striatal dopamine receptor damage occurring in MPTP-intoxicated non-human primates. Life Sci 39:1375–1382PubMedCrossRef

19.

Doudet DJ, Jivan S, Ruth TJ, Wyatt RJ (2002) In vivo PET studies of the dopamine D₁ receptors in rhesus monkeys with long-term MPTP-induced Parkinsonism. Synapse 44:111–115PubMedCrossRef

20.

Cohen RM, Carson RE, Wyatt RJ, Doudet DJ (1999) Opiate receptor avidity is reduced bilaterally in rhesus monkeys unilaterally lesioned with MPTP. Synapse 33:282–288PubMedCrossRef

21.

Yee RE, Huang SC, Togasaki DM et al. (2002) Imaging and therapeutics: the role of neuronal transport in the regional specificity of L-DOPA accumulation in brain. Mol Imaging Biol 4:208–218PubMedCrossRef

22.

Doudet DJ, Rosa-Neto P, Munk OL et al. (2006) Effect of age on markers for monoaminergic neurons of normal and MPTP-lesioned rhesus monkeys: a multi-tracer PET study. NeuroImage 30:26–35PubMedCrossRef

23.

Lee CS, Samii A, Sossi V et al. (2000) In vivo positron emission tomographic evidence for compensatory changes in presynaptic dopaminergic nerve terminals in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 47:493–503PubMedCrossRef

24.

Bernheimer H, Birkmayer W, Hornykiewicz O, Jellinger K, Seitelberger F (1973) Brain dopamine and the syndromes of Parkinson and Huntington. Clinical, morphological and neurochemical correlations. J Neurol Sci 20:415–455PubMedCrossRef

25.

Cohen RM, Carson RE, Aigner TG, Doudet DJ (1998) Opiate receptor avidity is reduced in non-motor impaired MPTP-lesioned rhesus monkeys. Brain Res 806:292–296PubMedCrossRef

26.

Miletich RS, Bankiewicz KS, Quarantelli M et al (1994) MRI detects acute degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopamine system after MPTP exposure in hemiparkinsonian monkeys. Ann Neurol 35:689–697PubMedCrossRef

27.

Zhang Z, Zhang M, Ai Y, Avison C, Gash DM (1999) MPTP-Induced pallidal lesions in rhesus monkeys. Exp Neurol 155:140–149PubMedCrossRef

28.

Sharma SK, Ebadi M (2005) Distribution kinetics of ¹⁸F-DOPA in weaver mutant mice. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 139:23–30PubMedCrossRef

29.

Sharma SK, El Refaey H, Ebadi M (2006) Complex-1 activity and (¹⁸)F-DOPA uptake in genetically engineered mouse model of Parkinson’s disease and the neuroprotective role of coenzyme Q(10). Brain Res Bull 70:22–32PubMedCrossRef

30.

Honer M, Hengerer B, Blagoev M et al. (2006) Comparison of [¹⁸F]FDOPA, [¹⁸F]FMT and [¹⁸F]FECNT for imaging dopaminergic neurotransmission in mice. Nucl Med Biol 33:607–614PubMed

31.

Hume SP, Lammertsma AA, Myers R et al. (1996) The potential of high-resolution positron emission tomography to monitor striatal dopaminergic function in rat models of disease. J Neurosci Methods 67:103–112PubMed

32.

Forsback S, Niemi R, Marjamaki P et al. (2004) Uptake of 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-L-dopa and [¹⁸F]CFT reflect nigral neuronal loss in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Synapse 51:119-127PubMedCrossRef

33.

Strome EM, Cepeda IL, Sossi V, Doudet DJ (2006) Evaluation of the integrity of the dopamine system in a rodent model of Parkinson’s disease: small animal PET compared to behavioral assessment and autoradiography. Mol Imaging Biol 8:292–299PubMedCrossRef

34.

Sossi V, Holden JE, Topping GJ et al. (2007) In vivo measurement of density and affinity of the monoamine vesicular transporter in a unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of PD. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (in press). DOI 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600446

35.

Nguyen TV, Brownell AL, Iris Chen YC et al. (2000) Detection of the effects of dopamine receptor supersensitivity using pharmacological MRI and correlations with PET. Synapse 36:57–65PubMedCrossRef

36.

Hume SP, Opacka-Juffry J, Myers R et al. (1995) Effect of L-dopa and 6-hydroxydopamine lesioning on [¹¹C]raclopride binding in rat striatum, quantified using PET. Synapse 21:45–53PubMedCrossRef

37.

Nikolaus S, Larisch R, Beu M et al. (2003) Bilateral increase in striatal dopamine D2 receptor density in the 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat: a serial in vivo investigation with small animal PET. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 30:390–395PubMedCrossRef

38.

Inaji M, Okauchi T, Ando K et al. (2005) Correlation between quantitative imaging and behavior in unilaterally 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. Brain Res 1064:136–145PubMedCrossRef

39.

Cicchetti F, Brownell AL, Williams K et al. (2002) Neuroinflammation of the nigrostriatal pathway during progressive 6-OHDA dopamine degeneration in rats monitored by immunohistochemistry and PET imaging. Eur J Neurosci 15:991–998PubMedCrossRef

40.

Sanchez-Pernaute R, Ferree A, Cooper O et al. (2004) Selective COX-2 inhibition prevents progressive dopamine neuron degeneration in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neuroinflammation 1:6PubMedCrossRef

41.

Chen YC, Galpern WR, Brownell AL et al. (1997) Detection of dopaminergic neurotransmitter activity using pharmacologic MRI: correlation with PET, microdialysis, and behavioral data. Magn Reson Med 38:389–398PubMedCrossRef

42.

Chen YI, Brownell AL, Galpern W et al. (1999) Detection of dopaminergic cell loss and neural transplantation using pharmacological MRI, PET and behavioral assessment. NeuroReport 10:2881–2886PubMedCrossRef

43.

Brownell AL, Livni E, Galpern W, Isacson O (1998) In vivo PET imaging in rat of dopamine terminals reveals functional neural transplants. Ann Neurol 43:387–390PubMedCrossRef

44.

Lindvall O, Bjorklund A (2004) Cell therapy in Parkinson’s disease. NeuroRx 1:382–393PubMedCrossRef

45.

Doudet DJ, Cornfeldt ML, Honey CR, Schweikert AW, Allen RC (2004) PET imaging of implanted human retinal pigment epithelial cells in the MPTP-induced primate model of Parkinson’s disease. Exp Neurol 189:361–368PubMedCrossRef

46.

Danielsen EH, Cumming P, Andersen F et al. (2000) The DaNeX study of embryonic mesencephalic, dopaminergic tissue grafted to a minipig model of Parkinson’s disease: preliminary findings of effect of MPTP poisoning on striatal dopaminergic markers. Cell Transplant 9:247–259PubMed

47.

Cumming P, Danielsen EH, Vafaee M et al. (2001) Normalization of markers for dopamine innervation in striatum of MPTP-lesioned miniature pigs with intrastriatal grafts. Acta Neurol Scand 103:309–315PubMedCrossRef

48.

Dall AM, Danielsen EH, Sorensen JC et al. (2002) Quantitative [¹⁸F]fluorodopa/PET and histology of fetal mesencephalic dopaminergic grafts to the striatum of MPTP-poisoned minipigs. Cell Transplant 11:733–746PubMed

49.

Bjorklund LM, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Chung S et al. (2002) Embryonic stem cells develop into functional dopaminergic neurons after transplantation in a Parkinson rat model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:2344–2349PubMedCrossRef

50.

Lin LF, Doherty DH, Lile JD, Bektesh S, Collins F (1993) GDNF: a glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor for midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Science 260:1130–1132PubMedCrossRef

51.

Kishima H, Poyot T, Bloch J et al (2004) Encapsulated GDNF-producing C2C12 cells for Parkinson’s disease: a pre-clinical study in chronic MPTP-treated baboons. Neurobiol Dis 16:428–439PubMedCrossRef

52.

Opacka-Juffry J, Ashworth S, Hume SP et al. (1995) GDNF protects against 6-OHDA nigrostriatal lesion: in vivo study with microdialysis and PET. NeuroReport 7:348–352PubMed

53.

Sullivan AM, Opacka-Juffry J, Blunt SB (1998) Long-term protection of the rat nigrostriatal dopaminergic system by glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor against 6-hydroxydopamine in vivo. Eur J Neurosci 10:57–63PubMedCrossRef

54.

Kordower JH, Emborg ME, Bloch J et al. (2000) Neurodegeneration prevented by lentiviral vector delivery of GDNF in primate models of Parkinson’s disease. Science 290:767–773PubMedCrossRef

55.

Bankiewicz KS, Eberling JL, Kohutnicka M et al. (2000) Convection-enhanced delivery of AAV vector in parkinsonian monkeys; in vivo detection of gene expression and restoration of dopaminergic function using pro-drug approach. Exp Neurol 164:2–14PubMedCrossRef

56.

Emborg ME, Carbon M, Holden JE et al. (2006) Subthalamic glutamic acid decarboxylase gene therapy: changes in motor function and cortical metabolism. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 27:501–509PubMedCrossRef

57.

Lee WT, Chang C (2004) Magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in assessing 3-nitropropionic acid-induced brain lesions: an animal model of Huntington’s disease. Prog Neurobiol 72:87–110PubMedCrossRef

58.

The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group (1993) A novel gene containing a trinucleotide repeat that is expanded and unstable on Huntington’s disease chromosomes. Cell 72:971–983CrossRef

59.

Rubinsztein DC, Barton DE, Davison BC, Ferguson-Smith MA (1993) Analysis of the huntingtin gene reveals a trinucleotide-length polymorphism in the region of the gene that contains two CCG-rich stretches and a correlation between decreased age of onset of Huntington’s disease and CAG repeat number. Hum Mol Genet 2:1713–1715PubMedCrossRef

60.

Hoogeveen AT, Willemsen R, Meyer N et al. (1993) Characterization and localization of the Huntington disease gene product. Hum Mol Genet 2:2069–2073PubMedCrossRef

61.

Roitberg BZ, Emborg ME, Sramek JG, Palfi S, Kordower JH (2002) Behavioral and morphological comparison of two nonhuman primate models of Huntington’s disease. Neurosurgery 50:137–145PubMedCrossRef

62.

Brownell AL, Hantraye P, Wullner U et al. (1994) PET- and MRI-based assessment of glucose utilization, dopamine receptor binding, and hemodynamic changes after lesions to the caudate-putamen in primates. Exp Neurol 125:41–51PubMedCrossRef

63.

Burns LH, Pakzaban P, Deacon TW et al. (1995) Selective putaminal excitotoxic lesions in non-human primates model the movement disorder of Huntington disease. Neuroscience 64:1007–1017PubMedCrossRef

64.

Hantraye P, Loc’h C, Maziere B et al. (1992) 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-L-dopa uptake and [⁷⁶Br]bromolisuride binding in the excitotoxically lesioned caudate-putamen of nonhuman primates studied using positron emission tomography. Exp Neurol 115:218–227PubMedCrossRef

65.

Hantraye P, Leroy-Willig A, Denys A et al. (1992) Magnetic resonance imaging to monitor pathology of caudate-putamen after excitotoxin-induced neuronal loss in the nonhuman primate brain. Exp Neurol 118:18–23PubMedCrossRef

66.

Hantraye P, Riche D, Maziere M et al. (1989) Anatomical, behavioral and positron emission tomography studies of unilateral excitotoxic lesions of the baboon caudate-putamen as a primate model of Huntington’s disease. In: Crossman AR, Sambrook MA (eds) Neural mechanisms in disorders of movement. London: Libbey

67.

Araujo DM, Cherry SR, Tatsukawa KJ, Toyokuni T, Kornblum HI (2000) Deficits in striatal dopamine D(2) receptors and energy metabolism detected by in vivo microPET imaging in a rat model of Huntington’s disease. Exp Neurol 166:287–297PubMedCrossRef

68.

Ishiwata K, Ogi N, Hayakawa N et al. (2002) Adenosine A2A receptor imaging with [¹¹C]KF18446 PET in the rat brain after quinolinic acid lesion: comparison with the dopamine receptor imaging. Ann Nucl Med 16:467–475PubMedCrossRef

69.

Brownell AL, Chen YI, Yu M et al. (2004) 3-Nitropropionic acid-induced neurotoxicity—assessed by ultra high resolution positron emission tomography with comparison to magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurochem 89:1206–1214PubMedCrossRef

70.

Jenkins BG, Andreassen OA, Dedeoglu A et al. (2005) Effects of CAG repeat length, HTT protein length and protein context on cerebral metabolism measured using magnetic resonance spectroscopy in transgenic mouse models of Huntington’s disease. J Neurochem 95:553–562PubMedCrossRef

71.

Wang X, Sarkar A, Cicchetti F et al. (2005) Cerebral PET imaging and histological evidence of transglutaminase inhibitor cystamine induced neuroprotection in transgenic R6/2 mouse model of Huntington’s disease. J Neurol Sci 231:57–66PubMedCrossRef

72.

Meguro K, Blaizot X, Kondoh Y et al. (1999) Neocortical and hippocampal glucose hypometabolism following neurotoxic lesions of the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices in the non-human primate as shown by PET. Implications for Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 122:1519–1531PubMedCrossRef

73.

Millien I, Blaizot X, Giffard C et al. (2002) Brain glucose hypometabolism after perirhinal lesions in baboons: implications for Alzheimer disease and aging. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22:1248–1261PubMedCrossRef

74.

Noda A, Murakami Y, Tsukada H, Nishimura S (2006) Amyloid imaging in aged and young macaques with PIB and FDDNP. Soc Nucl Med Abstr 34

75.

Xiao-Chuan W, Zheng-Hui H, Zheng-Yu F et al. (2004) Correlation of Alzheimer-like tau hyperphosphorylation and fMRI bold intensity. Curr Alzheimer Res 1:143–148PubMedCrossRef

76.

Bhagat YA, Obenaus A, Richardson JS, Kendall EJ (2002) Evolution of beta-amyloid induced neuropathology: magnetic resonance imaging and anatomical comparisons in the rodent hippocampus. Magma 14:223–232PubMed

77.

Song Y, Morikawa S, Morita M et al. (2006) Comparison of MR images and histochemical localization of intra-arterially administered microglia surrounding beta-amyloid deposits in the rat brain. Histol Histopathol 21:705–711PubMed

78.

Codita A, Winblad B, Mohammed AH (2006) Of mice and men: more neurobiology in dementia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 19:555–563PubMedCrossRef

79.

Klunk WE, Lopresti BJ, Ikonomovic MD et al. (2005) Binding of the positron emission tomography tracer Pittsburgh compound-B reflects the amount of amyloid-beta in Alzheimer’s disease brain but not in transgenic mouse brain. J Neurosci 25:10598–10606PubMedCrossRef

80.

Toyama H, Ye D, Ichise M et al. (2005) PET imaging of brain with the beta-amyloid probe, [¹¹C]6-OH-BTA-1, in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 32:593–600PubMedCrossRef

81.

Valla J, Chen K, Berndt JD et al. (2002) Effects of image resolution on autoradiographic measurements of posterior cingulate activity in PDAPP mice: implications for functional brain imaging studies of transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease. NeuroImage 16:1–6PubMedCrossRef

82.

Heneka MT, Ramanathan M, Jacobs AH et al. (2006) Locus ceruleus degeneration promotes Alzheimer pathogenesis in amyloid precursor protein 23 transgenic mice. J Neurosci 26:1343–1354PubMedCrossRef

83.

Falangola MF, Lee SP, Nixon RA, Duff K, Helpern JA (2005) Histological co-localization of iron in Abeta plaques of PS/APP transgenic mice. Neurochem Res 30:201–205PubMedCrossRef

84.

Jack CR, Jr., Wengenack TM, Reyes DA et al. (2005) In vivo magnetic resonance microimaging of individual amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s transgenic mice. J Neurosci 25:10041–10048PubMedCrossRef

85.

Vanhoutte G, Dewachter I, Borghgraef P, Van Leuven F, Van der LA (2005) Noninvasive in vivo MRI detection of neuritic plaques associated with iron in APP[V717I] transgenic mice, a model for Alzheimer’s disease. Magn Reson Med 53:607–613PubMedCrossRef

86.

Jack CR, Jr., Garwood M, Wengenack TM et al. (2004) In vivo visualization of Alzheimer’s amyloid plaques by magnetic resonance imaging in transgenic mice without a contrast agent. Magn Reson Med 52:1263–1271PubMedCrossRef

87.

Helpern JA, Lee SP, Falangola MF et al. (2004) MRI assessment of neuropathology in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Magn Reson Med 51:794–798PubMedCrossRef

88.

Wadghiri YZ, Sigurdsson EM, Sadowski M et al. (2003) Detection of Alzheimer’s amyloid in transgenic mice using magnetic resonance microimaging. Magn Reson Med 50:293–302PubMedCrossRef

89.

Weiss C, Venkatasubramanian PN, Aguado AS et al (2002) Impaired eyeblink conditioning and decreased hippocampal volume in PDAPP V717F mice. Neurobiol Dis 11:425–433PubMedCrossRef

90.

Koistinaho M, Kettunen MI, Goldsteins G et al. (2002) Beta-amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice that harbor diffuse A beta deposits but do not form plaques show increased ischemic vulnerability: role of inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:1610–1615 PubMedCrossRef

91.

Sykova E, Vorisek I, Antonova T et al. (2005) Changes in extracellular space size and geometry in APP23 transgenic mice: a model of Alzheimer’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:479–484PubMedCrossRef

92.

Sun SW, Song SK, Harms MP et al (2005) Detection of age-dependent brain injury in a mouse model of brain amyloidosis associated with Alzheimer’s disease using magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging. Exp Neurol 191:77–85PubMedCrossRef

93.

Mueggler T, Meyer-Luehmann M, Rausch M et al (2004) Restricted diffusion in the brain of transgenic mice with cerebral amyloidosis. Eur J Neurosci 20:811–817PubMedCrossRef

94.

Song SK, Kim JH, Lin SJ, Brendza RP, Holtzman DM (2004) Diffusion tensor imaging detects age-dependent white matter changes in a transgenic mouse model with amyloid deposition. Neurobiol Dis 15:640–647PubMedCrossRef

95.

Krucker T, Schuler A, Meyer EP, Staufenbiel M, Beckmann N (2004) Magnetic resonance angiography and vascular corrosion casting as tools in biomedical research: application to transgenic mice modeling Alzheimer’s disease. Neurol Res 26:507–516PubMedCrossRef

96.

Higuchi M, Iwata N, Matsuba Y et al. (2005) ¹⁹F and ¹H MRI detection of amyloid beta plaques in vivo. Nat Neurosci 8:527–533CrossRef

97.

von Kienlin M, Kunnecke B, Metzger F et al. (2005) Altered metabolic profile in the frontal cortex of PS2APP transgenic mice, monitored throughout their life span. Neurobiol Dis 18:32–39CrossRef

98.

Dedeoglu A, Choi JK, Cormier K, Kowall NW, Jenkins BG (2004) Magnetic resonance spectroscopic analysis of Alzheimer’s disease mouse brain that express mutant human APP shows altered neurochemical profile. Brain Res 1012:60–65PubMedCrossRef

99.

Sherer TB, Fiske BK, Svendsen CN, Lang AE, Langston JW (2006) Crossroads in GDNF therapy for Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 21:136–141PubMedCrossRef

100.

Ravina B, Eidelberg D, Ahlskog JE et al. (2005) The role of radiotracer imaging in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 64:208–215PubMed

101.

Willner P (1984) The validity of animal models of depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 83:1–16CrossRef

Title: Animal Models of Neurodegenerative Disease: Insights from In vivo Imaging Studies
Authors: Elissa M. Strome
Doris J. Doudet
Publication date: 01-07-2007
Publisher: Springer-Verlag
Published in: Molecular Imaging and Biology / Issue 4/2007
Print ISSN: 1536-1632
Electronic ISSN: 1860-2002
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11307-007-0093-4

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Animal Models of Neurodegenerative Disease: Insights from In vivo Imaging Studies

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 4/2007

The Application of Positron-Emitting Molecular Imaging Tracers in Alzheimer’s Disease

MR Spectroscopy in Neurodegenerative Disease

Functional and Anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Parkinson’s Disease

In Vitro Imaging Techniques in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Understanding the Placebo Effect: Contributions from Neuroimaging

Functional Imaging of Cerebral Blood Flow and Glucose Metabolism in Parkinson’s Disease and Huntington’s Disease