Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Prevention Science 1/2011

01-03-2011

Short-Term Efficacy of Click City®: Tobacco: Changing Etiological Mechanisms Related to the Onset of Tobacco Use

Authors: Judy A. Andrews, Judith S. Gordon, Sarah E. Hampson, Steven M. Christiansen, Barbara Gunn, Paul Slovic, Herbert H. Severson

Published in: Prevention Science | Issue 1/2011

Login to get access

Abstract

This paper described the short-term results from an ongoing randomized controlled efficacy study of Click City®: Tobacco, a tobacco prevention program designed for 5th graders, with a booster in sixth grade. Click City®: Tobacco is an innovative school-based prevention program delivered via an intranet, a series of linked computers with a single server. The components of the program target theoretically based and empirically supported etiological mechanisms predictive of future willingness and intentions to use tobacco and initiation of tobacco use. Each component was designed to change one or more etiological mechanisms and was empirically evaluated in the laboratory prior to inclusion in the program. Short-term results from 47 elementary schools (24 schools who used Click City®: Tobacco, and 23 who continued with their usual curriculum) showed change in intentions and willingness to use tobacco from baseline to 1-week following the completion of the 5th grade sessions. The results demonstrate the short-term efficacy of this program and suggest that experimentally evaluating components prior to including them in the program contributed to the efficacy of the program. The program was most efficacious for students who were most at risk.
Literature
go back to reference Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. New York: Open University Press. Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. New York: Open University Press.
go back to reference Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
go back to reference Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valente, T. (2001). Peers, schools, and adolescent cigarette smoking. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 22–30.CrossRefPubMed Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valente, T. (2001). Peers, schools, and adolescent cigarette smoking. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 22–30.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Andrews (2010). [Extent of tobacco use among 5th graders in the Oregon Youth Substance Use Project]. Unpublished raw data. Andrews (2010). [Extent of tobacco use among 5th graders in the Oregon Youth Substance Use Project]. Unpublished raw data.
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., & Peterson, M. (2006). The development of social images of substance users in children: A Guttman unidimensional scaling approach. Journal of Substance Use, 11, 305–321. PMCID: PMC2443056.CrossRefPubMed Andrews, J. A., & Peterson, M. (2006). The development of social images of substance users in children: A Guttman unidimensional scaling approach. Journal of Substance Use, 11, 305–321. PMCID: PMC2443056.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., & Barckley, M. (2008a). The effect of subjective normative social images of smokers on children’s intentions to smoke. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10, 589–597.CrossRef Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., & Barckley, M. (2008a). The effect of subjective normative social images of smokers on children’s intentions to smoke. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10, 589–597.CrossRef
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Barckley, M., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F. X. (2008b). The effect of early cognitions on cigarette and alcohol use in adolescence. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22, 96–106.CrossRef Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Barckley, M., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F. X. (2008b). The effect of early cognitions on cigarette and alcohol use in adolescence. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22, 96–106.CrossRef
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Greenwald, A. G., Gordon, J., & Widdop, C. (2010). Using the implicit association test to assess children’s implicit attitudes toward smoking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 2387–2406.CrossRef Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Greenwald, A. G., Gordon, J., & Widdop, C. (2010). Using the implicit association test to assess children’s implicit attitudes toward smoking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 2387–2406.CrossRef
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., Hops, H., & Duncan, S. C. (1997). Adolescent modeling of parent substance use: The moderating effect of the relationship with the parent. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 259–270.CrossRef Andrews, J. A., Hops, H., & Duncan, S. C. (1997). Adolescent modeling of parent substance use: The moderating effect of the relationship with the parent. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 259–270.CrossRef
go back to reference Andrews, J. A., Tildesley, H. H., Hops, H., Duncan, S. C., & Severson, H. H. (2003). Elementary school age children’s future intentions and use of substance. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 556–567.CrossRefPubMed Andrews, J. A., Tildesley, H. H., Hops, H., Duncan, S. C., & Severson, H. H. (2003). Elementary school age children’s future intentions and use of substance. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 556–567.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Ausubel, D. P. (1977). The facilitation of meaningful verbal learning in the classroom. Educational Psychologist, 12, 162–178.CrossRef Ausubel, D. P. (1977). The facilitation of meaningful verbal learning in the classroom. Educational Psychologist, 12, 162–178.CrossRef
go back to reference Benthin, A., Slovic, P., & Severson, H. (1993). A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of Adolescence, 16, 153–168.CrossRefPubMed Benthin, A., Slovic, P., & Severson, H. (1993). A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of Adolescence, 16, 153–168.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Botvin, G., & Griffin, K. (2007). School-based programmes to prevent alcohol, tobacco and other drug use. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 607–615.CrossRefPubMed Botvin, G., & Griffin, K. (2007). School-based programmes to prevent alcohol, tobacco and other drug use. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 607–615.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1106–12.CrossRefPubMed Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1106–12.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Bricker, J. B., Peterson, A. V., Jr., Andersen, M. R., Sarason, I. G., Rajan, B. K., & Leroux, B. G. (2007). Parents' and older siblings' smoking during childhood: Changing influences on smoking acquisition and escalation over the course of adolescence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9, 915–926.CrossRef Bricker, J. B., Peterson, A. V., Jr., Andersen, M. R., Sarason, I. G., Rajan, B. K., & Leroux, B. G. (2007). Parents' and older siblings' smoking during childhood: Changing influences on smoking acquisition and escalation over the course of adolescence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9, 915–926.CrossRef
go back to reference Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
go back to reference Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Dent, C., Sussman, S., Stacy, A., Craig, S., Burton, D., & Flay, B. (1995). Two-year behavior outcomes of Project towards No Tobacco Use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 676–677.CrossRefPubMed Dent, C., Sussman, S., Stacy, A., Craig, S., Burton, D., & Flay, B. (1995). Two-year behavior outcomes of Project towards No Tobacco Use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 676–677.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Diamond, W. D. (1990). Effects of describing long-term risks as cumulative or noncumulative. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 405–419.CrossRef Diamond, W. D. (1990). Effects of describing long-term risks as cumulative or noncumulative. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 405–419.CrossRef
go back to reference Flay, B. R. (2000). Approaches to substance use prevention utilizing school curriculum plus social environmental change. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 861–885.CrossRefPubMed Flay, B. R. (2000). Approaches to substance use prevention utilizing school curriculum plus social environmental change. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 861–885.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Cleveland, M. J., & Wills, T. A. (2006). A theory-based dual focus alcohol intervention for pre-adolescents: Social cognitions in the Strong African American Families Program. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 20, 185–195.CrossRef Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Cleveland, M. J., & Wills, T. A. (2006). A theory-based dual focus alcohol intervention for pre-adolescents: Social cognitions in the Strong African American Families Program. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 20, 185–195.CrossRef
go back to reference Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1997). Health images and their effects on health behavior. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 63–94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1997). Health images and their effects on health behavior. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 63–94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Gibbons, F. X., Houlihan, A. E., & Gerrard, M. (2009). Reason and reaction: The utility of a dual-focus, dual-processing perspective on promotion and prevention of adolescent health risk behavior. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 231–248.CrossRefPubMed Gibbons, F. X., Houlihan, A. E., & Gerrard, M. (2009). Reason and reaction: The utility of a dual-focus, dual-processing perspective on promotion and prevention of adolescent health risk behavior. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 231–248.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gilman, S. E., Abrams, D. B., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socioeconomic status over the life course and stages of cigarette use: Initiation, regular use, and cessation. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 802–808.CrossRefPubMed Gilman, S. E., Abrams, D. B., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socioeconomic status over the life course and stages of cigarette use: Initiation, regular use, and cessation. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 802–808.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.CrossRefPubMed Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Nichols, T. R., & Doyle, M. M. (2003). Effectiveness of a universal drug abuse prevention approach for youth at high risk for substance use initiation. Preventive Medicine, 36, 1–7.CrossRefPubMed Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Nichols, T. R., & Doyle, M. M. (2003). Effectiveness of a universal drug abuse prevention approach for youth at high risk for substance use initiation. Preventive Medicine, 36, 1–7.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Hampson, S. E., Andrews, J. A., & Barckley, M. (2007). Predictors of the development of elementary-school children’s intentions to smoke cigarettes: Hostility, prototypes, and subjective norms. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 751–760.CrossRef Hampson, S. E., Andrews, J. A., & Barckley, M. (2007). Predictors of the development of elementary-school children’s intentions to smoke cigarettes: Hostility, prototypes, and subjective norms. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 751–760.CrossRef
go back to reference Harrell, J., Bangdiwala, S., Deng, S., Webb, J., & Bradley, C. (1998). Smoking initiation in youth: The roles of gender, race, socioeconomics, and developmental status. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 271–279.CrossRefPubMed Harrell, J., Bangdiwala, S., Deng, S., Webb, J., & Bradley, C. (1998). Smoking initiation in youth: The roles of gender, race, socioeconomics, and developmental status. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 271–279.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 401–414.CrossRef Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 401–414.CrossRef
go back to reference Institute of Medicine. (1996). Prevention. In: Pathways of addiction: Opportunities in drug abuse research (pp. 139–158). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Institute of Medicine. (1996). Prevention. In: Pathways of addiction: Opportunities in drug abuse research (pp. 139–158). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
go back to reference Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2008 (NIH Publication No. 09-7401). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2008 (NIH Publication No. 09-7401). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
go back to reference MacKinnon, D. P., Taborga, M. P., & Morgan-Lopez, A. A. (2002). Mediation designs for tobacco prevention research. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, S69–S83.CrossRefPubMed MacKinnon, D. P., Taborga, M. P., & Morgan-Lopez, A. A. (2002). Mediation designs for tobacco prevention research. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, S69–S83.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Maggi, S., Hertzman, C., & Vaillancourt, T. (2007). Changes in smoking behaviours from late childhood to adolescence: Insights from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Health Psychology, 26, 232–240.CrossRefPubMed Maggi, S., Hertzman, C., & Vaillancourt, T. (2007). Changes in smoking behaviours from late childhood to adolescence: Insights from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Health Psychology, 26, 232–240.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Marcoux, B. C., & Shope, J. T. (1997). Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to adolescent use and misuse of alcohol. Health Education Research, 12, 323–331.CrossRef Marcoux, B. C., & Shope, J. T. (1997). Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to adolescent use and misuse of alcohol. Health Education Research, 12, 323–331.CrossRef
go back to reference Pierce, J. P., Choi, W. S., Gilpin, E. A., Farkas, A. J., & Merritt, R. K. (1996). Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States. Health Psychology, 15, 355–361.CrossRefPubMed Pierce, J. P., Choi, W. S., Gilpin, E. A., Farkas, A. J., & Merritt, R. K. (1996). Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States. Health Psychology, 15, 355–361.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Plumridge, E. W., Fitzgerald, L. J., & Abel, G. M. (2002). Performing coolness: Smoking refusal and adolescent identities. Health Education Research:Theory and Practice, 17, 167–179. Plumridge, E. W., Fitzgerald, L. J., & Abel, G. M. (2002). Performing coolness: Smoking refusal and adolescent identities. Health Education Research:Theory and Practice, 17, 167–179.
go back to reference Quadrel, M. J., Fischoff, B., & Davis, W. (1993). Adolescent (in) vulnerability. American Psychology, 48, 102–116.CrossRef Quadrel, M. J., Fischoff, B., & Davis, W. (1993). Adolescent (in) vulnerability. American Psychology, 48, 102–116.CrossRef
go back to reference Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 22, 218–233. Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 22, 218–233.
go back to reference Rohrbach, L. A., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1993). Diffusion of a school-based substance abuse prevention program: Predictors of program implementation. Preventive Medicine, 22, 237–260.CrossRefPubMed Rohrbach, L. A., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1993). Diffusion of a school-based substance abuse prevention program: Predictors of program implementation. Preventive Medicine, 22, 237–260.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Skara, S. N., & Sussman, S. (2003). A review of 25 long-term adolescent tobacco and other drug use prevention program evaluations. Preventive Medicine, 37, 541–474.CrossRef Skara, S. N., & Sussman, S. (2003). A review of 25 long-term adolescent tobacco and other drug use prevention program evaluations. Preventive Medicine, 37, 541–474.CrossRef
go back to reference Slovic, P. (2000). What does it mean to know a cumulative risk? Adolescents' perceptions of short-term and long-term consequences of smoking. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 13, 259–266.CrossRef Slovic, P. (2000). What does it mean to know a cumulative risk? Adolescents' perceptions of short-term and long-term consequences of smoking. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 13, 259–266.CrossRef
go back to reference Slovic, P. (2001). Cigarette smoking: Rational actors or rational fools? In P. Slovic (Ed.), Smoking: Risk, perception, and policy (pp. 97–124). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Slovic, P. (2001). Cigarette smoking: Rational actors or rational fools? In P. Slovic (Ed.), Smoking: Risk, perception, and policy (pp. 97–124). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
go back to reference Slovic, P., Peters, E., Finucane, M. L., & MacGregor, D. G. (2005). Affect, risk, and decision-making. Health Psychology, 24, S35–40.CrossRefPubMed Slovic, P., Peters, E., Finucane, M. L., & MacGregor, D. G. (2005). Affect, risk, and decision-making. Health Psychology, 24, S35–40.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Sussman, S. (1989). Two social influence perspectives of tobacco use development and prevention. Health Education Research: Theory and Practice, 4, 213–223. Sussman, S. (1989). Two social influence perspectives of tobacco use development and prevention. Health Education Research: Theory and Practice, 4, 213–223.
go back to reference Sussman, S. (2001). School-based tobacco use prevention and cessation: Where are we going? American Journal of Health Behaviors, 25, 191–199. Sussman, S. (2001). School-based tobacco use prevention and cessation: Where are we going? American Journal of Health Behaviors, 25, 191–199.
go back to reference Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., Burton, D., Stacy, A. W., Sun, P., Craig, S., et al. (1993). Project towards No Tobacco Use: 1—year behavior outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1245–1250.CrossRefPubMed Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., Burton, D., Stacy, A. W., Sun, P., Craig, S., et al. (1993). Project towards No Tobacco Use: 1—year behavior outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1245–1250.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Tobler, N., & Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71–128.CrossRef Tobler, N., & Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71–128.CrossRef
go back to reference Weinstein, N. D. (1998). Accuracy of smokers' risk perceptions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 135–140.CrossRefPubMed Weinstein, N. D. (1998). Accuracy of smokers' risk perceptions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 135–140.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Wells, J., & Lewis, L. (2006). Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994–2005 (NCES 2007-020). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Wells, J., & Lewis, L. (2006). Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994–2005 (NCES 2007-020). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
go back to reference Wiehe, S. E., Garrison, M. M., Christakis, D. A., Ebel, B. E., & Rivara, F. P. (2005). A systematic review of school-based smoking prevention trials with long-term follow-ups. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 162–169.CrossRefPubMed Wiehe, S. E., Garrison, M. M., Christakis, D. A., Ebel, B. E., & Rivara, F. P. (2005). A systematic review of school-based smoking prevention trials with long-term follow-ups. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 162–169.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Short-Term Efficacy of Click City®: Tobacco: Changing Etiological Mechanisms Related to the Onset of Tobacco Use
Authors
Judy A. Andrews
Judith S. Gordon
Sarah E. Hampson
Steven M. Christiansen
Barbara Gunn
Paul Slovic
Herbert H. Severson
Publication date
01-03-2011
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Prevention Science / Issue 1/2011
Print ISSN: 1389-4986
Electronic ISSN: 1573-6695
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-010-0192-3

Other articles of this Issue 1/2011

Prevention Science 1/2011 Go to the issue