Top

Published in:

01-02-2015 | Review

Comorbidity of ADHD and incontinence in children

Authors: Alexander von Gontard, Monika Equit

Published in: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry | Issue 2/2015

Abstract

ADHD and incontinence are common childhood disorders which co-occur at much higher rates than expected by chance. The aim of this review was to provide an overview both of the comorbidity of nocturnal enuresis (NE), daytime urinary incontinence (DUI) and faecal incontinence (FI) in children with ADHD; and, vice versa, of the co-occurrence of ADHD in children with NE, DUI and FI. Most clinical studies have focussed on the association of ADHD and NE. Population-based studies have shown that children with DUI have an even greater risk for ADHD than those with NE. While children with FI have the highest overall comorbidity rates of psychological disorders, these are heterogeneous with a wide range of internalising and externalising disorders—not necessarily of ADHD. Genetic studies indicate that ADHD and NE, DUI and FI do not share the same genetic basis. The comorbidity is conferred by non-genetic factors. Possible aetiological and pathogenetic links between ADHD and incontinence are provided by neurophysiological, imaging and pharmacological studies. The co-occurrence has clinical implications: children with ADHD and NE, DUI and FI are more difficult to treat, show lower compliance and have less favourable treatment outcomes for incontinence. Therefore, both groups of disorders have to be assessed and treated specifically.

Von Gontard A, Nevéus T (2006) Management of bladder and bowel control in children. MacKeith Press, London

Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (2007) J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:894–921

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, Vande Walle J, Hoebeke P (2005) Behavioural problems and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children with enuresis: a literature review. Eur J Pediatr 164:665–672PubMed

Von Gontard A (2012) Enuresis. In: Rey JM (ed) IACAPAP e-textbook of child and adolescent mental health. International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions, Geneva

Von Gontard A (2012) Encopresis. In: Rey JM (ed) IACAPAP e-textbook of child and adolescent mental health. International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions, Geneva

World Health Organisation (WHO) (1993) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders—diagnostic criteria for research. WHO, Geneva

American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders—fifth edition (DSM 5). APA, Washington, D.C

Von Gontard A (2011) Elimination disorders: a critical comment on DSM-5 proposals. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 20:83–88

Von Gontard A (2013) The impact of DSM-5 and guidelines for assessment and treatment of elimination disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22:S61–S67

10.

Nevéus T, von Gontard A, Hoebeke P, Hjälmås K, Bauer S, Bower W, Jørgensen TM, Rittig S, Walle JV, Yeung C, Djurhuus JC (2006) The standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function in children and adolescents: report from the Standardisation Committee of the International Children’s Continence Society. J Urol 176:314–324PubMed

11.

Austin PF, Bauer S, Bower W, Chase J, Franco I, Hoebeke P et al. (2014) The standardization of terminology of bladder function in children and adolescents: Update report from the standardization committee of the International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS). J Urol (in press)

12.

Rasquin A, Di Lorenzo C, Forbes D, Guiraldes E, Hyams JS, Staiano A, Walker LS (2006) Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: child/adolescent. Gastroenterology 130:1527–1537PubMed

13.

Von Gontard A, Baeyens D, Van Hoecke E, Warzak WJ, Bachmann C (2011) Psychological and psychiatric issues in urinary and fecal incontinence. J Urol 185:1432–1436

14.

Bhatia MS, Nigam VR, Bohra N, Malik C (1991) Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity among pediatric outpatients. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 32:297–306PubMed

15.

Biederman J, Santangelo SL, Faraone SV, Kiely K, Guite J, Mick E, Reed ED, Kraus I, Jellinek M, Perrin J (1995) Clinical correlates of enuresis in ADHD and Non-ADHD children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip 36:865–877

16.

Robson WLM, Jackson HP, Blackhurst D, Leung AKC (1997) Enuresis in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. South Med J 90:503–505PubMed

17.

Duel BP, Steinberg-Epstein R, Hill M, Lerner M, Koff S, De Gennaro M, De Jong T, Diamond D (2003) A survey of voiding dysfunction in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. J Urol 170:1521–1524PubMed

18.

Kaye JD, Palmer LS (2010) Characterization and management of voiding dysfunction in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Urology 76:220–224PubMed

19.

Elia J, Takeda T, Deberardinis R, Burke J, Accardo J, Ambrosini PJ, Blum NJ, Brown LW, Lantieri F, Berrettini W, Devoto M, Hakonarson H (2009) Nocturnal enuresis: a suggestive endophenotype marker for a subgroup of inattentive attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Pediatr 155:239.e5–244.e5

20.

Raghavan S, Mahadevan S, Kattimani S (2013) Enuresis among children with inattentive ADHD-A potential marker for a distinct sub-group. Asian J Psychiatry 6:83–84

21.

Aktepe E (2011) Sociodemographic features and comorbidity of children adolescents diagnosed as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Yeni Symp 49:201–208

22.

Yang T-, Huang K-, Chen S-, Chang H-, Yang H-, Guo Y- (2013) Correlation between clinical manifestations of nocturnal enuresis and attentional performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Formos Med Assoc 112:41–47PubMed

23.

Smith LC, Tamm L, Hughes CW, Bernstein IH (2013) Separate and overlapping relationships of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord 5:9–20

24.

Ghanizadeh A (2009) Psychiatric comorbidity differences in clinic-referred children and adolescents with ADHD according to the subtypes and gender. J Child Neurol 24:679–684PubMed

25.

Zavadenko NN, Suvorinova NY (2007) Disorders comorbid to attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome in children. Zh Nevrologii Psihiatrii im S S Korsakova 107:30–35

26.

Von Gontard A, Mauer-Mucke K, Plück J, Berner W, Lehmkuhl G (1999) Clinical behavioral problems in day- and night-wetting children. Pediatr Nephrol 13:662–667

27.

Gor RA, Fuhrer J, Schober JM (2012) A retrospective observational study of enuresis, daytime voiding symptoms, and response to medical therapy in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. J Pediatr Urol 8:314–317PubMed

28.

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, Hoebeke P, Verté S, Van Hoecke E, Vande Walle J (2004) Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with nocturnal enuresis. J Urol 171:2576–2579PubMed

29.

Okur M, Ruzgar H, Erbey F, Kaya A (2012) The evaluation of children with monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 16:229–232PubMed

30.

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, D’Haese L, Pieters F, Hoebeke P, Vande Walle J (2006) The prevalence of ADHD in children with enuresis: comparison between a tertiary and non-tertiary care sample. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 95:347–352

31.

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, Demeyere I, Verté S, Hoebeke P, Vande Walle J (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a risk factor for persistent nocturnal enuresis in children: a two-year follow-up study. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 94:1619–1625

32.

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, Van Erdeghem S, Hoebeke P, Vande Walle J (2007) The prevalence of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in children with nonmonosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis: a 4-year followup study. J Urol 178:2616–2620PubMed

33.

Gontkovsky ST (2011) Prevalence of enuresis in a community sample of children and adolescents referred for outpatient clinical psychological evaluation: psychiatric comorbidities and association with intellectual functioning. J Child Adolesc Ment Health 23:53–58

34.

Von Gontard A, Hollmann E (2004) Comorbidity of functional urinary incontinence and encopresis: somatic and behavioral associations. J Urol 171:2644–2647

35.

Kodman-Jones C, Hawkins L, Schulman SL (2001) Behavioral characteristics of children with daytime wetting. J Urol 166:2392–2395PubMed

36.

Zink S, Freitag CM, von Gontard A (2008) Behavioral comorbidity differs in subtypes of enuresis and urinary incontinence. J Urol 179:295–298PubMed

37.

Kuhn S, Natale N, Siemer S, Stoeckle M, von Gontard A (2009) Clinical differences in daytime wetting subtypes: urge incontinence and postponed voiding. J Urol 182:1967–1972PubMed

38.

Benninga MA, Buller HA, Heymans HS, Tytgat GN, Taminiau JA (1994) Is encopresis always the result of constipation? Arch Dis Child 71:186–193PubMedCentralPubMed

39.

Benninga MA, Voskuijl WP, Akkerhuis GW, Taminiau JA, Büller HA (2004) Colonic transit times and behaviour profiles in children with defecation disorders. Arch Dis Child 89:13–16PubMedCentralPubMed

40.

Johnston BD, Wright JA (1993) Attentional dysfunction in children with encopresis. J Dev Behav Pediatr 14:381–385PubMed

41.

Achenbach TM (1991) Manual for the child behavior checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. University of Vermont, Burlington

42.

Cox DJ, Morris JB Jr, Borowitz SM, Sutphen JL (2002) Psychological differences between children with and without chronic encopresis. J Pediatr Psychol 27:585–591PubMed

43.

Van Everdingen-Faasen EQ, Gerritsen BJ, Mulder PGH, Fliers EA, Groeneweg M (2008) Psychosocial co-morbidity affects treatment outcome in children with fecal incontinence. Eur J Pediatr 167:985–989PubMed

44.

Mellon MW, Natchev BE, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Voigt RG, Barbaresi WJ (2013) Incidence of enuresis and encopresis among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a population-based birth cohort. Acad Pediatr 13:322–327PubMed

45.

Mckeown C, Hisle-Gorman E, Eide M, Gorman GH, Nylund CM (2013) Association of constipation and fecal incontinence with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 132:e1210–e1215PubMed

46.

Golding J, Pembrey M, Jones R (2001) ALSPAC—the Avon Longitudinal Study of parents and children I. Study methodology. Pediatric Perinat Epidemiol 15:74–87

47.

Butler RJ, Golding J, Northstone K (2005) Nocturnal enuresis at 7.5 years old: prevalence and analysis of clinical signs. BJU Int 96:404–410PubMed

48.

Joinson C, Heron J, Emond A, Butler R (2007) Psychological problems in children with bedwetting and combined (day and night) wetting: a UK population-based study. J Pediatr Psychol 32:605–616PubMed

49.

Von Gontard A, Moritz AM, Thome-Granz S, Freitag C (2011) Association of attention deficit and elimination disorders at school entry: a population based study. J Urol 186:2027–2032

50.

Shreeram S, He J-, Kalaydjian A, Brothers S, Merikangas KR (2009) Prevalence of enuresis and its association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among US children: results from a nationally representative study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:35–41PubMedCentralPubMed

51.

Park S, Kim B-, Kim J-, Hong S-, Shin M-, Yoo HJ, Cho S- (2013) Nocturnal enuresis is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct problems. Psychiatr Invest 10:253–258

52.

Joinson C, Heron J, Von Gontard A (2006) Psychological problems in children with daytime wetting. Pediatrics 118:1985–1993PubMed

53.

Von Gontard A, Heron J, Joinson C (2010) Factors associated with low and high voiding frequency in children with diurnal urinary incontinence. BJU Int 105:396–401

54.

Joinson C, Heron J, Butler U, von Gontard A (2006) Psychological differences between children with and without soiling problems. Pediatrics 117:1575–1584PubMed

55.

Ryan CW (2008) Association between colonic symptoms and inattention/hyperactivity in British children. Child Adolesc Ment Health 13:188–192

56.

Von Gontard A, Schaumburg H, Hollmann E, Eiberg H, Rittig S (2001) The genetics of enuresis: a review. J Urol 166:2438–2443

57.

Eiberg H, Shaumburg HL, von Gontard A, Rittig S (2001) Linkage study of a large danish 4-generation family with urge incontinence and nocturnal enuresis. J Urol 166:2401–2403PubMed

58.

Loening-Baucke V (1997) Urinary incontinence and urinary tract infection and their resolution with treatment of chronic constipation of childhood. Pediatrics 100:228–232PubMed

59.

Bakwin H, Davidson M (1971) Constipation in twins. Am J Dis Child 121:179–181PubMed

60.

Thapar A, Langley K, Asherson P, Gill M (2007) Gene-environment interplay in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the importance of a developmental perspective. Br J Psychiatry 190:1–3PubMed

61.

Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, Goralnick JJ, Holmgren MA, Sklar P (2005) Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57:1313–1323PubMed

62.

Ogdie MN, Fisher SE, Yang M, Ishii J, Francks C, Loo SK, Cantor RM, McCracken JT, McGough JJ, Smalley SL, Nelson SF (2004) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: fine mapping supports linkage to 5p13, 6q12, 16p13, and 17p11. Am J Hum Genet 75:661–668PubMedCentralPubMed

63.

Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K (2013) Practitioner review: what have we learnt about the causes of ADHD? J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip 54:3–16

64.

Bailey JN, Ornitz EM, Gehricke JG, Gabikian P, Russell AT, Smalley SL (1999) Transmission of primary nocturnal enuresis and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 88:1364–1368

65.

Koff SA (1996) Cure of nocturnal enuresis: why isn’t desmopressin very effective? Pediatr Nephrol 10:667–670PubMed

66.

Freitag CM, Röhling D, Seifen S, Pukrop R, von Gontard A (2006) Neurophysiology of nocturnal enuresis: evoked potentials and prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex. Dev Med Child Neurol 48:278–284PubMed

67.

Wolfish NM, Pivik RT, Busby KA (1997) Elevated sleep arousal thresholds in enuretic boys: clinical implications. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 86:381–384

68.

Iscan A, Ozkul Y, Unal D, Soran M, Kati M, Bozlar S, Karazeybek AH (2002) Abnormalities in event-related potential and brainstem auditory evoked response in children with nocturnal enuresis. Brain Dev 24:681–687PubMed

69.

Karlidag R, Ozisik HI, Soylu A, Kizkin S, Sipahi B, Unal S, Ozcan C (2004) Topographic abnormalities in event-related potentials in children with monosyptomatic nocturnal enuresis. Neurourol Urodyn 23:237–240PubMed

70.

Baeyens D, Roeyers H, Naert S, Hoebeke P, Vande Walle J (2007) The impact of maturation of brainstem inhibition on enuresis: a startle eye blink modification study with 2-year followup. J Urol 178:2621–2625PubMed

71.

Eggert P, Freischmidt S, Bismarck PV, Schulz-Jürgensen S (2012) Differentiation of subgroups of monosymptomatic enuresis according to prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 101:e304–e308

72.

Schulz-Juergensen S, Wunberg D, Wolff S, Eggert P, Siniatchkin M (2013) Simultaneous EMG-fMRI during startle inhibition in monosymptomatic enuresis—an exploratory study. Eur J Pediatr 172:23–30PubMed

73.

Griffiths D, Tadic SD, Schaefer W, Resnick NM (2007) Cerebral control of the bladder in normal and urge-incontinent women. Neuroimage 37:1–7PubMedCentralPubMed

74.

Kubota M, Suita S, Kamimura T (1997) Abnormalities in visceral evoked potentials from the anal canal in children with chronic constipation. Surg Today 27:632–637PubMed

75.

Loening-Baucke V, Yamada T (1995) Is the afferent pathway from the rectum impaired in children with chronic constipation and encopresis? Gastroenterology 109:397–403PubMed

76.

Becker A, Rubly M, El Khatib D, Becker N, von Gontard A (2011) Central nervous system processing of emotions in children with faecal incontinence. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 100:e267–e274

77.

Williams LM, Hermens DF, Palmer D, Kohn M, Clarke S, Keage H, Clark CR, Gordon E (2008) Misinterpreting emotional expressions in attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder: evidence for a neural marker and stimulant effects. Biol Psychiatry 63:917–926PubMed

78.

Wiersema R, van der Meere J, Roeyers H, van Voster R, Baeyens D (2006) Event rate and event-related potentials in ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatr 47(6):560–567

79.

Hawk LW Jr, Yartz AR, Pelham WE Jr, Lock TM (2003) The effects of methylphenidate on prepulse inhibition during attended and ignored prestimuli among boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology 165:118–127PubMed

80.

Ashare RL, Hawk LW Jr, Shiels K, Rhodes JD, Pelham WE Jr, Waxmonsky JG (2010) Methylphenidate enhances prepulse inhibition during processing of task-relevant stimuli in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychophysiology 47:838–845PubMedCentralPubMed

81.

Ornitz EM, Russell AT, Hanna G, Gabikian P, Gehricke J-G, Song D, Guthrie D (1999) Prepulse inhibition of startle and the neurobiology of primary nocturnal enuresis. Biol Psychiatry 45:1455–1466PubMed

82.

Schulz-Juergensen S, Thiemann A, Gebhardt J, Baumgarten-Walczak A, Eggert P (2014) Prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle and the influence of methylphenidate in children with ADHD. J Atten Disord 18:117–122PubMed

83.

Equit M, Becker A, El Khatib D, Rubly M, Becker N, von Gontard A (2013) Central nervous system processing of emotions in children with nocturnal enuresis and ADHD. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr (accepted for publication)

84.

Griffiths DJ, Tadic SD (2008) Bladder control, urgency, and urge incontinence: evidence from functional brain imaging. Neurourol Urodyn 27:466–474PubMed

85.

Fowler CJ, Griffiths DJ (2010) A decade of functional brain imaging applied to bladder control. Neurourol Urodyn 29:49–55PubMed

86.

Yu B, Guo Q, Fan G, Ma H, Wang L, Liu N (2011) Evaluation of working memory impairment in children with primary nocturnal enuresis: evidence from event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. J Paediatr Child Health 47:429–435PubMed

87.

Lei D, Ma J, Du X, Shen G, Tian M, Li G (2012) Altered brain activation during response inhibition in children with primary nocturnal enuresis: an fMRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 33:2913–2919PubMed

88.

Lei D, Ma J, Du X, Shen G, Tian M, Li G (2012) Spontaneous brain activity changes in children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis: a resting-state fMRI study. Neurourol Urodyn 31:99–104PubMed

89.

Lei D, Ma J, Shen X, Du X, Shen G, Liu W, Yan X, Li G (2012) Changes in the brain microstructure of children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis: A diffusion tensor imaging study. PLoS One 7:e31023PubMedCentralPubMed

90.

Mayer EA, Naliboff BD, Craig ADB (2006) Neuroimaging of the brain-gut axis: from basic understanding to treatment of functional GI disorders. Gastroenterology 131:1925–1942PubMed

91.

Bush G (2011) Cingulate, frontal, and parietal cortical dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 69:1160–1167PubMedCentralPubMed

92.

Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N (2005) Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57:1263–1272PubMed

93.

Feehan M, McGee R, Stanton W, Silva PA (1990) A 6 year follow-up of childhood enuresis: prevalence in adolescence and consequences for mental health. J Paediatr Child Health 26:75–79PubMed

94.

Jarvelin MR, Moilanen I, Vikevainen-Tervonen L, Huttunen NP (1990) Life changes and protective capacities in enuretic and non-enuretic children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip 31:763–774

95.

Lettgen B, von Gontard A, Olbing H, Heiken-Löwenau C, Gaebel E, Schmitz I (2002) Urge incontinence and voiding postponement in children: somatic and psychosocial factors. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 91:978–984

96.

Joinson C, Heron J, von Gontard A, Butler U, Golding J, Emond A (2008) Early childhood risk factors associated with daytime wetting and soiling in school-age children. J Pediatr Psychol 33:739–750PubMed

97.

Richards LM (2013) It is time for a more integrated bio-psycho-social approach to ADHD. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 18:483–503PubMed

98.

Froehlich TE, Anixt JS, Loe IM, Chirdkiatgumchai V, Kuan L, Gilman RC (2011) Update on environmental risk factors for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 13:333–344PubMedCentralPubMed

99.

Kabir Z, Connolly GN, Alpert HR (2011) Secondhand smoke exposure and neurobehavioral disorders among children in the United States. Pediatrics 128:263–270PubMed

100.

Becker K, El-Faddagh M, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Laucht M (2008) Interaction of dopamine transporter genotype with prenatal smoke exposure on ADHD symptoms. J Pediatr 152:263.e1–269.e1

101.

Neuman RJ, Lobos E, Reich W, Henderson CA, Sun L-, Todd RD (2007) Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biol Psychiatry 61:1320–1328PubMed

102.

Todd RD, Neuman RJ (2007) Gene-environment interactions in the development of combined type ADHD: evidence for a synapse-based model. Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet 144:971–975

103.

Pagani LS (2013) Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and brain development: the case of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev (in press)

104.

Nigg JT (2012) Future directions in ADHD etiology research. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 41:524–533PubMed

105.

Houts AC, Berman JS, Abramson H (1994) Effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatments for nocturnal enuresis. J Consult Clin Psychol 62:737–745PubMed

106.

Williamson LB, Gower M, Ulzen T (2011) Enuresis and ADHD in older children and an adolescent treated with stimulant medication: a case series. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 20:53–55PubMedCentralPubMed

107.

Bahali K, Ipek H, Uneri OS (2013) Methylphenidate and atomoxetine for treatment of nocturnal enuresis in a child with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22:649–650PubMed

108.

Sher PK, Reinberg Y (1996) Successful treatment of giggle incontinence with methylphenidate. J Urol 156:656–658PubMed

109.

Berry AK, Zderic S, Carr M (2009) Methylphenidate for giggle incontinence. J Urol 182:2028–2032PubMed

110.

Chang JH, Lee KY, Kim TB, Yoon SJ, Lee T, Kim KH (2011) Clinical and urodynamic effect of methylphenidate for the treatment of giggle incontinence. Neurourol Urodynam 30:1338–1342

111.

Bilgiç A (2011) The possible effect of methylphenidate on secondary encopresis in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 35:647

112.

Golubchik P, Weizman A (2009) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, methylphenidate, and primary encopresis. Psychosomatics 50:178PubMed

113.

Yilmaz S, Akça OF (2013) Effectiveness of methylphenidate in the treatment of Encopresis whether or not attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms are present. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 23:632–633PubMed

114.

Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Harding M, O’Donneel D, Griffin S (1996) Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the life cycle. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:409–432PubMed

115.

Gepertz S, Nevéus T (2004) Imipramine for therapy resistant enuresis: a retrospective evaluation. J Urol 171:2607–2609PubMed

116.

Lundmark E, Nevus T (2009) Reboxetine in therapy-resistant enuresis: a retrospective evaluation. Scand J Urol Nephrol 43:365–368PubMed

117.

Mendhekar DN, Gupta N (2010) Use of sertraline in childhood retentive encopresis. Ann Pharmacother 44:395PubMed

118.

Von Gontard A, Lehmkuhl G (1996) Desmopressin side effects [1]. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:129–130

119.

Tullus K, Bergström R, Fosdal I, Winnergård I, Hjälmås K, Svahn J, Servin B, Aili M, Unt C, Lydén G-, Sölsnes E, Hansson E, Ström US, Hellström A-, Kruse S, Lewander P, Bredenberg C, Svensson K, Söderman P, Hellström S, Åhsgren I, Hölne M, Oldin B, Wohlén P, Wettrell G, Clausen M, Swerkersson S, Lundh A, Mellstam L, De Medina VH, Eriksson G, Wettergren B, Sundelöf B, Hecht H, Hultman I-, Larsson L, Sannum M, Jansson I, Karlsson B-, Skanse B, Wille S, Perbo K, Bredman B, Nygren M, Belfrage E, Zachrisson I, Almström T, Lundgren P, Nilsson B-, Karlsson B, Mansfeld L, Sikorska W, Martinsons U, Lundström M, Westerlund H, Möllerstedt U (1999) Efficacy and safety during long-term treatment of primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis with desmopressin. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr 88:1274–1278

120.

Veld BA, Kwee-Zuiderwijk WJ, van Puijenbroek EP, Stricker BH (1998) Neuropsychiatrische bijwerkingen toegeschreven aan het gebruik van oxybutynine. Ne Todschr Geneeskd 142:590–592

121.

Shatkin JP (2004) Atomoxetine for the treatment of pediatric nocturnal enuresis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 14:443–447PubMed

122.

Sumner SR, Schuh KJ, Sutton VK, Lipetz R, Kelsey DK (2006) Placebo-controlled study of the effects of atomoxetine on bladder control in children with nocturnal enuresis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 16:699–711PubMed

123.

Hergüner S, Hergüner A (2012) Atomoxetine for encopresis in 2 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 32:302–303PubMed

124.

Crimmins CR, Rathbun SR, Husmann DA (2003) Management of urinary incontinence and nocturnal enuresis in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Urol 170:1347–1350PubMed

125.

Nolan T, Debelle G, Oberklaid F, Coffey C (1991) Randomised trial of laxatives in treatment of childhood encopresis. Lancet 338:523–527PubMed

Title: Comorbidity of ADHD and incontinence in children
Authors: Alexander von Gontard
Monika Equit
Publication date: 01-02-2015
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry / Issue 2/2015
Print ISSN: 1018-8827
Electronic ISSN: 1435-165X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0577-0

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Comorbidity of ADHD and incontinence in children

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 2/2015

The Pressure–Activation–Stress scale in relation to ADHD and cortisol

Tourette syndrome research in Europe has entered a new era of collaboration

The increasing prevalence of reported diagnoses of childhood psychiatric disorders: a descriptive multinational comparison

Formal thought disorder in autism spectrum disorder predicts future symptom severity, but not psychosis prodrome

YICAP/ECAP international young investigators paper and grant writing workshop

National total Survey of German adolescent Suicide in Prison