Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Skeletal Radiology 12/2021

Open Access 01-12-2021 | Magnetic Resonance Imaging | Review Article

MRI nomenclature for musculoskeletal infection

Authors: Erin F. Alaia, Avneesh Chhabra, Claus S. Simpfendorfer, Micah Cohen, Douglas N. Mintz, Josephina A. Vossen, Adam C. Zoga, Jan Fritz, Charles E. Spritzer, David G. Armstrong, William B. Morrison

Published in: Skeletal Radiology | Issue 12/2021

Login to get access

Abstract

The Society of Skeletal Radiology (SSR) Practice Guidelines and Technical Standards Committee identified musculoskeletal infection as a White Paper topic, and selected a Committee, tasked with developing a consensus on nomenclature for MRI of musculoskeletal infection outside the spine. The objective of the White Paper was to critically assess the literature and propose standardized terminology for imaging findings of infection on MRI, in order to improve both communication with clinical colleagues and patient care.
A definition was proposed for each term; debate followed, and the committee reached consensus. Potential controversies were raised, with formulated recommendations. The committee arrived at consensus definitions for cellulitis, soft tissue abscess, and necrotizing infection, while discouraging the nonspecific term phlegmon. For bone infection, the term osteitis is not useful; the panel recommends using terms that describe the likelihood of osteomyelitis in cases where definitive signal changes are lacking. The work was presented virtually to SSR members, who had the opportunity for review and modification prior to submission for publication.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Duryea D, Bernard S, Flemming D, Walker E, French C. Outcomes in diabetic foot ulcer patients with isolated T2 marrow signal abnormality in the underlying bone: should the diagnosis of “osteitis” be changed to “early osteomyelitis”? Skeletal Radiol. 2017;46(10):1327–33.PubMedCrossRef Duryea D, Bernard S, Flemming D, Walker E, French C. Outcomes in diabetic foot ulcer patients with isolated T2 marrow signal abnormality in the underlying bone: should the diagnosis of “osteitis” be changed to “early osteomyelitis”? Skeletal Radiol. 2017;46(10):1327–33.PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference Hirschfeld CB, Kapadia SN, Bryan J, Jannat-Khah DP, May B, Vielemeyer O, et al. Impact of diagnostic bone biopsies on the management of non-vertebral osteomyelitis: a retrospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(34):e16954.CrossRef Hirschfeld CB, Kapadia SN, Bryan J, Jannat-Khah DP, May B, Vielemeyer O, et al. Impact of diagnostic bone biopsies on the management of non-vertebral osteomyelitis: a retrospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(34):e16954.CrossRef
3.
go back to reference Hoang D, Fisher S, Oz OK, La Fontaine J, Chhabra A. Percutaneous CT guided bone biopsy for suspected osteomyelitis: diagnostic yield and impact on patient’s treatment change and recovery. Eur J Radiol. 2019;114:85–91.PubMedCrossRef Hoang D, Fisher S, Oz OK, La Fontaine J, Chhabra A. Percutaneous CT guided bone biopsy for suspected osteomyelitis: diagnostic yield and impact on patient’s treatment change and recovery. Eur J Radiol. 2019;114:85–91.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Cornia PB, Pile JC, Peters EJ, Armstrong DG, et al. 2012 Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(12):e132-173.PubMedCrossRef Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Cornia PB, Pile JC, Peters EJ, Armstrong DG, et al. 2012 Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(12):e132-173.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference American College of Radiology, ACR Manual on Contrast Media. 2021. American College of Radiology, ACR Manual on Contrast Media. 2021.
7.
go back to reference Hayeri MR, Ziai P, Shehata ML, Teytelboym OM, Huang BK. Soft-tissue infections and their imaging mimics from cellulitis to necrotizing fasciitis. 2016;36(6):1888–910. Hayeri MR, Ziai P, Shehata ML, Teytelboym OM, Huang BK. Soft-tissue infections and their imaging mimics from cellulitis to necrotizing fasciitis. 2016;36(6):1888–910.
8.
go back to reference Kirchgesner T, Tamigneaux C, Acid S, Perlepe V, Lecouvet F, Malghem J, et al. Fasciae of the musculoskeletal system: MRI findings in trauma, infection and neoplastic diseases. Insights Imaging. 2019;10(1):47.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Kirchgesner T, Tamigneaux C, Acid S, Perlepe V, Lecouvet F, Malghem J, et al. Fasciae of the musculoskeletal system: MRI findings in trauma, infection and neoplastic diseases. Insights Imaging. 2019;10(1):47.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Brook I. Microbiology and management of soft tissue and muscle infections. Int J Surg. 2008;6(4):328–38.PubMedCrossRef Brook I. Microbiology and management of soft tissue and muscle infections. Int J Surg. 2008;6(4):328–38.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Palestro CJ, Love C, Miller TT. Infection and musculoskeletal conditions: imaging of musculoskeletal infections. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2006;20(6):1197–218.PubMedCrossRef Palestro CJ, Love C, Miller TT. Infection and musculoskeletal conditions: imaging of musculoskeletal infections. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2006;20(6):1197–218.PubMedCrossRef
12.
13.
go back to reference Cook TA, Rahim N, Simpson HC, Galland RB. Magnetic resonance imaging in the management of diabetic foot infection. Br J Surg. 1996;83(2):245–8.PubMed Cook TA, Rahim N, Simpson HC, Galland RB. Magnetic resonance imaging in the management of diabetic foot infection. Br J Surg. 1996;83(2):245–8.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Rahmouni A, Chosidow O, Mathieu D, Gueorguieva E, Jazaerli N, Radier C, et al. MR imaging in acute infectious cellulitis. Radiology. 1994;192(2):493–6.PubMedCrossRef Rahmouni A, Chosidow O, Mathieu D, Gueorguieva E, Jazaerli N, Radier C, et al. MR imaging in acute infectious cellulitis. Radiology. 1994;192(2):493–6.PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Schmid MR, Kossmann T, Duewell S. Differentiation of necrotizing fasciitis and cellulitis using MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;170(3):615–20.PubMedCrossRef Schmid MR, Kossmann T, Duewell S. Differentiation of necrotizing fasciitis and cellulitis using MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;170(3):615–20.PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME. Pedal abscesses in patients suspected of having pedal osteomyelitis: analysis with MR imaging. Radiology. 2002;224(3):649–55.PubMedCrossRef Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME. Pedal abscesses in patients suspected of having pedal osteomyelitis: analysis with MR imaging. Radiology. 2002;224(3):649–55.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Kan JH, Young RS, Yu C, Hernanz-Schulman M. Clinical impact of gadolinium in the MRI diagnosis of musculoskeletal infection in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40(7):1197–205.PubMedCrossRef Kan JH, Young RS, Yu C, Hernanz-Schulman M. Clinical impact of gadolinium in the MRI diagnosis of musculoskeletal infection in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40(7):1197–205.PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Saiag P, Le Breton C, Pavlovic M, Fouchard N, Delzant G, Bigot JM. Magnetic resonance imaging in adults presenting with severe acute infectious cellulitis. Arch Dermatol. 1994;130(9):1150–8.PubMedCrossRef Saiag P, Le Breton C, Pavlovic M, Fouchard N, Delzant G, Bigot JM. Magnetic resonance imaging in adults presenting with severe acute infectious cellulitis. Arch Dermatol. 1994;130(9):1150–8.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Hopkins KL, Li KC, Bergman G. Gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infectious processes. Skeletal Radiol. 1995;24(5):325–30.PubMedCrossRef Hopkins KL, Li KC, Bergman G. Gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infectious processes. Skeletal Radiol. 1995;24(5):325–30.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Ledermann HP, Schweitzer ME, Morrison WB. Nonenhancing tissue on MR imaging of pedal infection: characterization of necrotic tissue and associated limitations for diagnosis of osteomyelitis and abscess. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;178(1):215–22.PubMedCrossRef Ledermann HP, Schweitzer ME, Morrison WB. Nonenhancing tissue on MR imaging of pedal infection: characterization of necrotic tissue and associated limitations for diagnosis of osteomyelitis and abscess. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;178(1):215–22.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Lipsky BA, Aragon-Sanchez J, Diggle M, Embil J, Kono S, Lavery L, et al. IWGDF guidance on the diagnosis and management of foot infections in persons with diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2016;32(Suppl 1):45–74.PubMedCrossRef Lipsky BA, Aragon-Sanchez J, Diggle M, Embil J, Kono S, Lavery L, et al. IWGDF guidance on the diagnosis and management of foot infections in persons with diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2016;32(Suppl 1):45–74.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Spichler A, Hurwitz BL, Armstrong DG, Lipsky BA. Microbiology of diabetic foot infections: from Louis Pasteur to “crime scene investigation.” BMC Med. 2015;13:2.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Spichler A, Hurwitz BL, Armstrong DG, Lipsky BA. Microbiology of diabetic foot infections: from Louis Pasteur to “crime scene investigation.” BMC Med. 2015;13:2.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Horowitz JD, Durham JR, Nease DB, Lukens ML, Wright JG, Smead WL. Prospective evaluation of magnetic resonance imaging in the management of acute diabetic foot infections. Ann Vasc Surg. 1993;7(1):44–50.PubMedCrossRef Horowitz JD, Durham JR, Nease DB, Lukens ML, Wright JG, Smead WL. Prospective evaluation of magnetic resonance imaging in the management of acute diabetic foot infections. Ann Vasc Surg. 1993;7(1):44–50.PubMedCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Durham JR, Lukens ML, Campanini DS, Wright JG, Smead WL. Impact of magnetic resonance imaging on the management of diabetic foot infections. Am J Surg. 1991;162(2):150–3 discussion 153-154.PubMedCrossRef Durham JR, Lukens ML, Campanini DS, Wright JG, Smead WL. Impact of magnetic resonance imaging on the management of diabetic foot infections. Am J Surg. 1991;162(2):150–3 discussion 153-154.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Donovan A, Schweitzer ME. Use of MR imaging in diagnosing diabetes-related pedal osteomyelitis. Radiographics. 2010;30(3):723–36.PubMedCrossRef Donovan A, Schweitzer ME. Use of MR imaging in diagnosing diabetes-related pedal osteomyelitis. Radiographics. 2010;30(3):723–36.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Kaim ALH, Bongartz G, Messmer P, Muller-Brand J, Steinbrich W. Chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis of the lower extremity: comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and combined bone scintigraphy/immunoscintigraphy with radiolabelled monoclonal antigranulocyte antibodies. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29:378–86.PubMedCrossRef Kaim ALH, Bongartz G, Messmer P, Muller-Brand J, Steinbrich W. Chronic post-traumatic osteomyelitis of the lower extremity: comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and combined bone scintigraphy/immunoscintigraphy with radiolabelled monoclonal antigranulocyte antibodies. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29:378–86.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Gage HC WE. The radiological exploration of sinus tracts, fistulae, and infected cavities. Radiology 1943:233–248. Gage HC WE. The radiological exploration of sinus tracts, fistulae, and infected cavities. Radiology 1943:233–248.
28.
go back to reference Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Batte WG, Radack DP, Russel KM. Osteomyelitis of the foot: relative importance of primary and secondary MR imaging signs. Radiology. 1998;207(3):625–32.PubMedCrossRef Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Batte WG, Radack DP, Russel KM. Osteomyelitis of the foot: relative importance of primary and secondary MR imaging signs. Radiology. 1998;207(3):625–32.PubMedCrossRef
29.
go back to reference Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Bock GW, Mitchell DG, Hume EL, Pathria MN, et al. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis: utility of fat-suppressed contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 1993;189(1):251–7.PubMedCrossRef Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Bock GW, Mitchell DG, Hume EL, Pathria MN, et al. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis: utility of fat-suppressed contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 1993;189(1):251–7.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Sonin AH, Resnik CS, Mulligan ME, Murphey MD. General case of the day Squamous cell carcinoma arising in a chronic draining sinus tract as a complication of chronic osteomyelitis. Radiographics. 1998;18(2):530–2.PubMedCrossRef Sonin AH, Resnik CS, Mulligan ME, Murphey MD. General case of the day Squamous cell carcinoma arising in a chronic draining sinus tract as a complication of chronic osteomyelitis. Radiographics. 1998;18(2):530–2.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Manaster B.J. MD, Disler D. Musculoskeletal imaging: the requisites. 4th edn: Elsevier, 2013. Manaster B.J. MD, Disler D. Musculoskeletal imaging: the requisites. 4th edn: Elsevier, 2013.
32.
go back to reference Chandnani VP, Beltran J, Morris CS, Khalil SN, Mueller CF, Burk JM, et al. Acute experimental osteomyelitis and abscesses: detection with MR imaging versus CT. Radiology. 1990;174(1):233–6.PubMedCrossRef Chandnani VP, Beltran J, Morris CS, Khalil SN, Mueller CF, Burk JM, et al. Acute experimental osteomyelitis and abscesses: detection with MR imaging versus CT. Radiology. 1990;174(1):233–6.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Beltran J, Noto AM, McGhee RB, Freedy RM, McCalla MS. Infections of the musculoskeletal system: high-field-strength MR imaging. Radiology. 1987;164(2):449–54.PubMedCrossRef Beltran J, Noto AM, McGhee RB, Freedy RM, McCalla MS. Infections of the musculoskeletal system: high-field-strength MR imaging. Radiology. 1987;164(2):449–54.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Averill LW, Hernandez A, Gonzalez L, Pena AH, Jaramillo D. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis in children: utility of fat-suppressed contrast-enhanced MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2009;192(5):1232–8.PubMedCrossRef Averill LW, Hernandez A, Gonzalez L, Pena AH, Jaramillo D. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis in children: utility of fat-suppressed contrast-enhanced MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2009;192(5):1232–8.PubMedCrossRef
35.
go back to reference McGuinness B, Wilson N, Doyle AJ. The “penumbra sign” on T1-weighted MRI for differentiating musculoskeletal infection from tumour. Skeletal Radiol. 2007;36(5):417–21.PubMedCrossRef McGuinness B, Wilson N, Doyle AJ. The “penumbra sign” on T1-weighted MRI for differentiating musculoskeletal infection from tumour. Skeletal Radiol. 2007;36(5):417–21.PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Marti-Bonmati L, Aparisi F, Poyatos C, Vilar J. Brodie abscess: MR imaging appearance in 10 patients. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1993;3(3):543–6.PubMedCrossRef Marti-Bonmati L, Aparisi F, Poyatos C, Vilar J. Brodie abscess: MR imaging appearance in 10 patients. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1993;3(3):543–6.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Miller TT, Randolph DA Jr, Staron RB, Feldman F, Cushin S. Fat-suppressed MRI of musculoskeletal infection: fast T2-weighted techniques versus gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted images. Skeletal Radiol. 1997;26(11):654–8.PubMedCrossRef Miller TT, Randolph DA Jr, Staron RB, Feldman F, Cushin S. Fat-suppressed MRI of musculoskeletal infection: fast T2-weighted techniques versus gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted images. Skeletal Radiol. 1997;26(11):654–8.PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Paajanen H, Grodd W, Revel D, Engelstad B, Brasch RC. Gadolinium-DTPA enhanced MR imaging of intramuscular abscesses. Magn Reson Imaging. 1987;5(2):109–15.PubMedCrossRef Paajanen H, Grodd W, Revel D, Engelstad B, Brasch RC. Gadolinium-DTPA enhanced MR imaging of intramuscular abscesses. Magn Reson Imaging. 1987;5(2):109–15.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Kumar Y, Khaleel M, Boothe E, Awdeh H, Wadhwa V, Chhabra A. Role of diffusion weighted imaging in musculoskeletal infections: current perspectives. Eur Radiol. 2017;27(1):414–23.PubMedCrossRef Kumar Y, Khaleel M, Boothe E, Awdeh H, Wadhwa V, Chhabra A. Role of diffusion weighted imaging in musculoskeletal infections: current perspectives. Eur Radiol. 2017;27(1):414–23.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Yu CW, Hsiao JK, Hsu CY, Shih TT. Bacterial pyomyositis: MRI and clinical correlation. Magn Reson Imaging. 2004;22(9):1233–41.PubMedCrossRef Yu CW, Hsiao JK, Hsu CY, Shih TT. Bacterial pyomyositis: MRI and clinical correlation. Magn Reson Imaging. 2004;22(9):1233–41.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Sanghvi DA, Iyer VR, Deshmukh T, Hoskote SS. MRI features of tuberculosis of the knee. Skeletal Radiol. 2009;38(3):267–73.PubMedCrossRef Sanghvi DA, Iyer VR, Deshmukh T, Hoskote SS. MRI features of tuberculosis of the knee. Skeletal Radiol. 2009;38(3):267–73.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Savarese LG, Monsignore LM, de Andrade HM, Martinez R, Nogueira-Barbosa MH. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of paracoccidioidomycosis in the musculoskeletal system. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20(10):1346–54.PubMedCrossRef Savarese LG, Monsignore LM, de Andrade HM, Martinez R, Nogueira-Barbosa MH. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of paracoccidioidomycosis in the musculoskeletal system. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20(10):1346–54.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Gordon BA, Martinez S, Collins AJ. Pyomyositis: characteristics at CT and MR imaging. Radiology. 1995;197(1):279–86.PubMedCrossRef Gordon BA, Martinez S, Collins AJ. Pyomyositis: characteristics at CT and MR imaging. Radiology. 1995;197(1):279–86.PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Soler R, Rodriguez E, Aguilera C, Fernandez R. Magnetic resonance imaging of pyomyositis in 43 cases. Eur J Radiol. 2000;35(1):59–64.PubMedCrossRef Soler R, Rodriguez E, Aguilera C, Fernandez R. Magnetic resonance imaging of pyomyositis in 43 cases. Eur J Radiol. 2000;35(1):59–64.PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference Dariushnia SR, Mitchell JW, Chaudry G, Hogan MJ. Society of interventional radiology quality improvement standards for image-guided percutaneous drainage and aspiration of abscesses and fluid collections. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2020;31(4):662–6 e664.PubMedCrossRef Dariushnia SR, Mitchell JW, Chaudry G, Hogan MJ. Society of interventional radiology quality improvement standards for image-guided percutaneous drainage and aspiration of abscesses and fluid collections. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2020;31(4):662–6 e664.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Chun CW, Jung JY, Baik JS, Jee WH, Kim SK, Shin SH. Detection of soft-tissue abscess: Comparison of diffusion-weighted imaging to contrast-enhanced MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2018;47(1):60–8.PubMedCrossRef Chun CW, Jung JY, Baik JS, Jee WH, Kim SK, Shin SH. Detection of soft-tissue abscess: Comparison of diffusion-weighted imaging to contrast-enhanced MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2018;47(1):60–8.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Fan ST, Choi TK, Chan FL, Lai EC, Wong J. Pancreatic phlegmon: what is it? Am J Surg. 1989;157(6):544–7.PubMedCrossRef Fan ST, Choi TK, Chan FL, Lai EC, Wong J. Pancreatic phlegmon: what is it? Am J Surg. 1989;157(6):544–7.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Zaheer A, Singh VK, Qureshi RO, Fishman EK. The revised Atlanta classification for acute pancreatitis: updates in imaging terminology and guidelines. Abdom Imaging. 2013;38(1):125–36.PubMedCrossRef Zaheer A, Singh VK, Qureshi RO, Fishman EK. The revised Atlanta classification for acute pancreatitis: updates in imaging terminology and guidelines. Abdom Imaging. 2013;38(1):125–36.PubMedCrossRef
49.
go back to reference Palmer WBL, Bonar F, Choi J, Cotten A, Griffith JF, Robinson P, Pfirrmann CW. Glossary of terms for musculoskeletal radiology. Skeletal Radiol. 2020;49(Suppl 1):1–33.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Palmer WBL, Bonar F, Choi J, Cotten A, Griffith JF, Robinson P, Pfirrmann CW. Glossary of terms for musculoskeletal radiology. Skeletal Radiol. 2020;49(Suppl 1):1–33.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Soldatos T, Durand DJ, Subhawong TK, Carrino JA, Chhabra A. Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections: systematic diagnostic assessment and key points. Acad Radiol. 2012;19(11):1434–43.PubMedCrossRef Soldatos T, Durand DJ, Subhawong TK, Carrino JA, Chhabra A. Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections: systematic diagnostic assessment and key points. Acad Radiol. 2012;19(11):1434–43.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Wilcox JR, Carter MJ, Covington S. Frequency of debridements and time to heal: a retrospective cohort study of 312 744 wounds. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149(9):1050–8.PubMedCrossRef Wilcox JR, Carter MJ, Covington S. Frequency of debridements and time to heal: a retrospective cohort study of 312 744 wounds. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149(9):1050–8.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Nixon BP, Boulton AJ. It’s not what you put on, but what you take off: techniques for debriding and off-loading the diabetic foot wound. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(Suppl 2):S92-99.PubMedCrossRef Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Nixon BP, Boulton AJ. It’s not what you put on, but what you take off: techniques for debriding and off-loading the diabetic foot wound. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(Suppl 2):S92-99.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Goh TGL, Ang CH, Wong CH. Early diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. Br J Surg. 2014;101(1):119–25.CrossRef Goh TGL, Ang CH, Wong CH. Early diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. Br J Surg. 2014;101(1):119–25.CrossRef
54.
go back to reference Wong CH, Khin LW, Heng KS, Tan KC, Low CO. The LRINEC (Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis) score: a tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(7):1535–41.PubMedCrossRef Wong CH, Khin LW, Heng KS, Tan KC, Low CO. The LRINEC (Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis) score: a tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(7):1535–41.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Kim KT, Kim YJ, Won Lee J, Kim YJ, Park SW, Lim MK, et al. Can necrotizing infectious fasciitis be differentiated from nonnecrotizing infectious fasciitis with MR imaging? Radiology. 2011;259(3):816–24.PubMedCrossRef Kim KT, Kim YJ, Won Lee J, Kim YJ, Park SW, Lim MK, et al. Can necrotizing infectious fasciitis be differentiated from nonnecrotizing infectious fasciitis with MR imaging? Radiology. 2011;259(3):816–24.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Wysoki MG, Santora TA, Shah RM, Friedman AC. Necrotizing fasciitis: CT characteristics. Radiology. 1997;203(3):859–63.PubMedCrossRef Wysoki MG, Santora TA, Shah RM, Friedman AC. Necrotizing fasciitis: CT characteristics. Radiology. 1997;203(3):859–63.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Loh NN, Ch’en IY, Cheung LP, Li KC. Deep fascial hyperintensity in soft-tissue abnormalities as revealed by T2-weighted MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1997;168(5):1301–4.PubMedCrossRef Loh NN, Ch’en IY, Cheung LP, Li KC. Deep fascial hyperintensity in soft-tissue abnormalities as revealed by T2-weighted MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1997;168(5):1301–4.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Brothers TE, Tagge DU, Stutley JE, Conway WF, Del Schutte H, Jr., Byrne TK. . Magnetic resonance imaging differentiates between necrotizing and non-necrotizing fasciitis of the lower extremity. J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187(4):416–21.PubMedCrossRef Brothers TE, Tagge DU, Stutley JE, Conway WF, Del Schutte H, Jr., Byrne TK. . Magnetic resonance imaging differentiates between necrotizing and non-necrotizing fasciitis of the lower extremity. J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187(4):416–21.PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Yoon MA, Chung HW, Yeo Y, Yoo HJ, Kang Y, Chee CG, et al. Distinguishing necrotizing from non-necrotizing fasciitis: a new predictive scoring integrating MRI in the LRINEC score. Eur Radiol. 2019;29(7):3414–23.PubMedCrossRef Yoon MA, Chung HW, Yeo Y, Yoo HJ, Kang Y, Chee CG, et al. Distinguishing necrotizing from non-necrotizing fasciitis: a new predictive scoring integrating MRI in the LRINEC score. Eur Radiol. 2019;29(7):3414–23.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Anaya DA, Dellinger EP. Necrotizing soft-tissue infection: diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(5):705–10.PubMedCrossRef Anaya DA, Dellinger EP. Necrotizing soft-tissue infection: diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(5):705–10.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Seok JH, Jee WH, Chun KA, Kim JY, Jung CK, Kim YR, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis versus pyomyositis: discrimination with using MR imaging. Korean J Radiol. 2009;10(2):121–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Seok JH, Jee WH, Chun KA, Kim JY, Jung CK, Kim YR, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis versus pyomyositis: discrimination with using MR imaging. Korean J Radiol. 2009;10(2):121–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Resnick D. Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders. 4th ed. Philadephia: W.B. Saunders Company; 2002. Resnick D. Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders. 4th ed. Philadephia: W.B. Saunders Company; 2002.
64.
go back to reference Mandell D. and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015. Mandell D. and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.
65.
go back to reference Karchevsky M, Schweitzer ME, Morrison WB, Parellada JA. MRI findings of septic arthritis and associated osteomyelitis in adults. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182(1):119–22.PubMedCrossRef Karchevsky M, Schweitzer ME, Morrison WB, Parellada JA. MRI findings of septic arthritis and associated osteomyelitis in adults. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182(1):119–22.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Monsalve J, Kan JH, Schallert EK, Bisset GS, Zhang W, Rosenfeld SB. Septic arthritis in children: frequency of coexisting unsuspected osteomyelitis and implications on imaging work-up and management. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;204(6):1289–95.PubMedCrossRef Monsalve J, Kan JH, Schallert EK, Bisset GS, Zhang W, Rosenfeld SB. Septic arthritis in children: frequency of coexisting unsuspected osteomyelitis and implications on imaging work-up and management. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;204(6):1289–95.PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference Schallert EK, Kan JH, Monsalve J, Zhang W, Bisset GS 3rd, Rosenfeld S. Metaphyseal osteomyelitis in children: how often does MRI-documented joint effusion or epiphyseal extension of edema indicate coexisting septic arthritis? Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(8):1174–81.PubMedCrossRef Schallert EK, Kan JH, Monsalve J, Zhang W, Bisset GS 3rd, Rosenfeld S. Metaphyseal osteomyelitis in children: how often does MRI-documented joint effusion or epiphyseal extension of edema indicate coexisting septic arthritis? Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(8):1174–81.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Hermet M, Minichiello E, Flipo RM, Dubost JJ, Allanore Y, Ziza JM, et al. Infectious sacroiliitis: a retrospective, multicentre study of 39 adults. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:305.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Hermet M, Minichiello E, Flipo RM, Dubost JJ, Allanore Y, Ziza JM, et al. Infectious sacroiliitis: a retrospective, multicentre study of 39 adults. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:305.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Bierry G, Huang AJ, Chang CY, Torriani M, Bredella MA. MRI findings of treated bacterial septic arthritis. Skeletal Radiol. 2012;41(12):1509–16.PubMedCrossRef Bierry G, Huang AJ, Chang CY, Torriani M, Bredella MA. MRI findings of treated bacterial septic arthritis. Skeletal Radiol. 2012;41(12):1509–16.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Kim EY, Kwack KS, Cho JH, Lee DH, Yoon SH. Usefulness of dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in differentiating between septic arthritis and transient synovitis in the hip joint. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198(2):428–33.PubMedCrossRef Kim EY, Kwack KS, Cho JH, Lee DH, Yoon SH. Usefulness of dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in differentiating between septic arthritis and transient synovitis in the hip joint. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198(2):428–33.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Sturzenbecher A, Braun J, Paris S, Biedermann T, Hamm B, Bollow M. MR imaging of septic sacroiliitis. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29(8):439–46.PubMedCrossRef Sturzenbecher A, Braun J, Paris S, Biedermann T, Hamm B, Bollow M. MR imaging of septic sacroiliitis. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29(8):439–46.PubMedCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Graif M, Schweitzer ME, Deely D, Matteucci T. The septic versus nonseptic inflamed joint: MRI characteristics. Skeletal Radiol. 1999;28(11):616–20.PubMedCrossRef Graif M, Schweitzer ME, Deely D, Matteucci T. The septic versus nonseptic inflamed joint: MRI characteristics. Skeletal Radiol. 1999;28(11):616–20.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Kanna RM, Bosco A, Shetty AP, Rajasekaran S. Unilateral sacroiliitis: differentiating infective and inflammatory etiology by magnetic resonance imaging and tissue studies. Eur Spine J. 2019;28(4):762–7.PubMedCrossRef Kanna RM, Bosco A, Shetty AP, Rajasekaran S. Unilateral sacroiliitis: differentiating infective and inflammatory etiology by magnetic resonance imaging and tissue studies. Eur Spine J. 2019;28(4):762–7.PubMedCrossRef
74.
go back to reference Prakash M, Gupta P, Sen RK, Sharma A, Khandelwal N. Magnetic resonance imaging evaluation of tubercular arthritis of the ankle and foot. Acta Radiol. 2015;56(10):1236–41.PubMedCrossRef Prakash M, Gupta P, Sen RK, Sharma A, Khandelwal N. Magnetic resonance imaging evaluation of tubercular arthritis of the ankle and foot. Acta Radiol. 2015;56(10):1236–41.PubMedCrossRef
75.
go back to reference Reinus WR, De Cotiis D, Schaffer A. Changing patterns of septic tenosynovitis of the distal extremities. Emerg Radiol. 2015;22(2):133–9.PubMedCrossRef Reinus WR, De Cotiis D, Schaffer A. Changing patterns of septic tenosynovitis of the distal extremities. Emerg Radiol. 2015;22(2):133–9.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Jaovisidha S, Chen C, Ryu KN, Siriwongpairat P, Pekanan P, Sartoris DJ, et al. Tuberculous tenosynovitis and bursitis: imaging findings in 21 cases. Radiology. 1996;201(2):507–13.PubMedCrossRef Jaovisidha S, Chen C, Ryu KN, Siriwongpairat P, Pekanan P, Sartoris DJ, et al. Tuberculous tenosynovitis and bursitis: imaging findings in 21 cases. Radiology. 1996;201(2):507–13.PubMedCrossRef
77.
go back to reference Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Raikin SM. Tendon involvement in pedal infection: MR analysis of frequency, distribution, and spread of infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;179(4):939–47.PubMedCrossRef Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME, Raikin SM. Tendon involvement in pedal infection: MR analysis of frequency, distribution, and spread of infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;179(4):939–47.PubMedCrossRef
78.
go back to reference Floemer F, Morrison WB, Bongartz G, Ledermann HP. MRI characteristics of olecranon bursitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;183(1):29–34.PubMedCrossRef Floemer F, Morrison WB, Bongartz G, Ledermann HP. MRI characteristics of olecranon bursitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;183(1):29–34.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference Edeiken J, Hodes PJ, Caplan LH. New bone production and periosteal reaction. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1966;97(3):708–18.PubMedCrossRef Edeiken J, Hodes PJ, Caplan LH. New bone production and periosteal reaction. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1966;97(3):708–18.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference Ogden JA. Pediatric osteomyelitis and septic arthritis: the pathology of neonatal disease. Yale J Biol Med. 1979;52(5):423–48.PubMedPubMedCentral Ogden JA. Pediatric osteomyelitis and septic arthritis: the pathology of neonatal disease. Yale J Biol Med. 1979;52(5):423–48.PubMedPubMedCentral
81.
go back to reference Trueta J. The 3 types of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1963;93:306–12.PubMed Trueta J. The 3 types of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1963;93:306–12.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Wang T, Zhang X, Bikle DD. Osteogenic differentiation of periosteal cells during fracture healing. J Cell Physiol. 2017;232(5):913–21.PubMedCrossRef Wang T, Zhang X, Bikle DD. Osteogenic differentiation of periosteal cells during fracture healing. J Cell Physiol. 2017;232(5):913–21.PubMedCrossRef
83.
go back to reference McCarville MB, Chen JY, Coleman JL, Li Y, Li X, Adderson EE, et al. Distinguishing osteomyelitis from Ewing sarcoma on radiography and MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;205(3):640–50 quiz 651.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef McCarville MB, Chen JY, Coleman JL, Li Y, Li X, Adderson EE, et al. Distinguishing osteomyelitis from Ewing sarcoma on radiography and MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;205(3):640–50 quiz 651.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Weenders SG, Janssen NE, Landman GW, van den Berg FP. Subperiosteal abscess in a child. Trueta's osteomyelitis hypothesis undermined? Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2015; 101(6):763–765. Weenders SG, Janssen NE, Landman GW, van den Berg FP. Subperiosteal abscess in a child. Trueta's osteomyelitis hypothesis undermined? Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2015; 101(6):763–765.
85.
go back to reference Belthur MV, Birchansky SB, Verdugo AA, Mason EO Jr, Hulten KG, Kaplan SL, et al. Pathologic fractures in children with acute Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94(1):34–42.PubMedCrossRef Belthur MV, Birchansky SB, Verdugo AA, Mason EO Jr, Hulten KG, Kaplan SL, et al. Pathologic fractures in children with acute Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94(1):34–42.PubMedCrossRef
86.
go back to reference Labbe JL, Peres O, Leclair O, Goulon R, Scemama P, Jourdel F, et al. Acute osteomyelitis in children: the pathogenesis revisited? Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2010;96(3):268–75.PubMedCrossRef Labbe JL, Peres O, Leclair O, Goulon R, Scemama P, Jourdel F, et al. Acute osteomyelitis in children: the pathogenesis revisited? Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2010;96(3):268–75.PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference Wyers MR, Samet JD, Mithal LB. Physeal separation in pediatric osteomyelitis. Pediatr Radiol. 2019;49(9):1229–33.PubMedCrossRef Wyers MR, Samet JD, Mithal LB. Physeal separation in pediatric osteomyelitis. Pediatr Radiol. 2019;49(9):1229–33.PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Jaramillo D, Dormans JP, Delgado J, Laor T, St Geme JW, 3rd. . Hematogenous osteomyelitis in infants and children: imaging of a changing disease. Radiology. 2017;283(3):629–43.PubMedCrossRef Jaramillo D, Dormans JP, Delgado J, Laor T, St Geme JW, 3rd. . Hematogenous osteomyelitis in infants and children: imaging of a changing disease. Radiology. 2017;283(3):629–43.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Ware JK, Browner BD, Pesanti EL. Chapter 24: chronic osteomyelitis. Skeletal trauma: basic science, management, and reconstruction 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. p.609–635. Ware JK, Browner BD, Pesanti EL. Chapter 24: chronic osteomyelitis. Skeletal trauma: basic science, management, and reconstruction 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. p.609–635.
90.
go back to reference Ostergaard M, Peterfy C, Conaghan P, McQueen F, Bird P, Ejbjerg B, et al. OMERACT Rheumatoid Arthritis Magnetic Resonance Imaging Studies Core set of MRI acquisitions joint pathology definitions and the OMERACT RA-MRI scoring system. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(6):1385–6.PubMed Ostergaard M, Peterfy C, Conaghan P, McQueen F, Bird P, Ejbjerg B, et al. OMERACT Rheumatoid Arthritis Magnetic Resonance Imaging Studies Core set of MRI acquisitions joint pathology definitions and the OMERACT RA-MRI scoring system. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(6):1385–6.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME. MR image analysis of pedal osteomyelitis: distribution, patterns of spread, and frequency of associated ulceration and septic arthritis. Radiology. 2002;223(3):747–55.PubMedCrossRef Ledermann HP, Morrison WB, Schweitzer ME. MR image analysis of pedal osteomyelitis: distribution, patterns of spread, and frequency of associated ulceration and septic arthritis. Radiology. 2002;223(3):747–55.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Lipsky BA, Weigelt JA, Sun X, Johannes RS, Derby KG, Tabak YP. Developing and validating a risk score for lower-extremity amputation in patients hospitalized for a diabetic foot infection. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(8):1695–700.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Lipsky BA, Weigelt JA, Sun X, Johannes RS, Derby KG, Tabak YP. Developing and validating a risk score for lower-extremity amputation in patients hospitalized for a diabetic foot infection. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(8):1695–700.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
93.
go back to reference Grayson ML, Gibbons GW, Balogh K, Levin E, Karchmer AW. Probing to bone in infected pedal ulcers A clinical sign of underlying osteomyelitis in diabetic patients. JAMA. 1995;273(9):721–3.PubMedCrossRef Grayson ML, Gibbons GW, Balogh K, Levin E, Karchmer AW. Probing to bone in infected pedal ulcers A clinical sign of underlying osteomyelitis in diabetic patients. JAMA. 1995;273(9):721–3.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Butalia S, Palda VA, Sargeant RJ, Detsky AS, Mourad O. Does this patient with diabetes have osteomyelitis of the lower extremity? JAMA. 2008;299(7):806–13.PubMedCrossRef Butalia S, Palda VA, Sargeant RJ, Detsky AS, Mourad O. Does this patient with diabetes have osteomyelitis of the lower extremity? JAMA. 2008;299(7):806–13.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Kapoor A, Page S, Lavalley M, Gale DR, Felson DT. Magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosing foot osteomyelitis: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(2):125–32.PubMedCrossRef Kapoor A, Page S, Lavalley M, Gale DR, Felson DT. Magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosing foot osteomyelitis: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(2):125–32.PubMedCrossRef
96.
go back to reference Dinh MT, Abad CL, Safdar N. Diagnostic accuracy of the physical examination and imaging tests for osteomyelitis underlying diabetic foot ulcers: meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(4):519–27.PubMedCrossRef Dinh MT, Abad CL, Safdar N. Diagnostic accuracy of the physical examination and imaging tests for osteomyelitis underlying diabetic foot ulcers: meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(4):519–27.PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Erdman WA, Tamburro F, Jayson HT, Weatherall PT, Ferry KB, Peshock RM. Osteomyelitis: characteristics and pitfalls of diagnosis with MR imaging. Radiology. 1991;180(2):533–9.PubMedCrossRef Erdman WA, Tamburro F, Jayson HT, Weatherall PT, Ferry KB, Peshock RM. Osteomyelitis: characteristics and pitfalls of diagnosis with MR imaging. Radiology. 1991;180(2):533–9.PubMedCrossRef
98.
go back to reference Collins MS, Schaar MM, Wenger DE, Mandrekar JN. T1-weighted MRI characteristics of pedal osteomyelitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005;185(2):386–93.PubMedCrossRef Collins MS, Schaar MM, Wenger DE, Mandrekar JN. T1-weighted MRI characteristics of pedal osteomyelitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005;185(2):386–93.PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Howe BM, Wenger DE, Mandrekar J, Collins MS. T1-weighted MRI imaging features of pathologically proven non-pedal osteomyelitis. Acad Radiol. 2013;20(1):108–14.PubMedCrossRef Howe BM, Wenger DE, Mandrekar J, Collins MS. T1-weighted MRI imaging features of pathologically proven non-pedal osteomyelitis. Acad Radiol. 2013;20(1):108–14.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Sax AJ, Halpern EJ, Zoga AC, Roedl JB, Belair JA, Morrison WB. Predicting osteomyelitis in patients whose initial MRI demonstrated bone marrow edema without corresponding T1 signal marrow replacement. Skeletal Radiol. 2020;49(8):1239–47.PubMedCrossRef Sax AJ, Halpern EJ, Zoga AC, Roedl JB, Belair JA, Morrison WB. Predicting osteomyelitis in patients whose initial MRI demonstrated bone marrow edema without corresponding T1 signal marrow replacement. Skeletal Radiol. 2020;49(8):1239–47.PubMedCrossRef
101.
go back to reference Grey AC, Davies AM, Mangham DC, Grimer RJ, Ritchie DA. The “penumbra sign” on T1-weighted MR imaging in subacute osteomyelitis: frequency, cause and significance. Clin Radiol. 1998;53(8):587–92.PubMedCrossRef Grey AC, Davies AM, Mangham DC, Grimer RJ, Ritchie DA. The “penumbra sign” on T1-weighted MR imaging in subacute osteomyelitis: frequency, cause and significance. Clin Radiol. 1998;53(8):587–92.PubMedCrossRef
102.
go back to reference Dangman BC, Hoffer FA, Rand FF, O’Rourke EJ. Osteomyelitis in children: gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 1992;182(3):743–7.PubMedCrossRef Dangman BC, Hoffer FA, Rand FF, O’Rourke EJ. Osteomyelitis in children: gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 1992;182(3):743–7.PubMedCrossRef
103.
go back to reference Ahmadi ME, Morrison WB, Carrino JA, Schweitzer ME, Raikin SM, Ledermann HP. Neuropathic arthropathy of the foot with and without superimposed osteomyelitis: MR imaging characteristics. Radiology. 2006;238(2):622–31.PubMedCrossRef Ahmadi ME, Morrison WB, Carrino JA, Schweitzer ME, Raikin SM, Ledermann HP. Neuropathic arthropathy of the foot with and without superimposed osteomyelitis: MR imaging characteristics. Radiology. 2006;238(2):622–31.PubMedCrossRef
104.
go back to reference Delgado J, Bedoya MA, Green AM, Jaramillo D, Ho-Fung V. Utility of unenhanced fat-suppressed T1-weighted MRI in children with sickle cell disease – can it differentiate bone infarcts from acute osteomyelitis? Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(13):1981–7.PubMedCrossRef Delgado J, Bedoya MA, Green AM, Jaramillo D, Ho-Fung V. Utility of unenhanced fat-suppressed T1-weighted MRI in children with sickle cell disease – can it differentiate bone infarcts from acute osteomyelitis? Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(13):1981–7.PubMedCrossRef
105.
go back to reference Bogoch E, Thompson G, Salter RB. Foci of chronic circumscribed osteomyelitis (Brodie’s abscess) that traverse the epiphyseal plate. J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4(2):162–9.PubMedCrossRef Bogoch E, Thompson G, Salter RB. Foci of chronic circumscribed osteomyelitis (Brodie’s abscess) that traverse the epiphyseal plate. J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4(2):162–9.PubMedCrossRef
107.
go back to reference Maffulli N, Papalia R, Zampogna B, Torre G, Albo E, Denaro V. The management of osteomyelitis in the adult. Surgeon. 2016;14(6):345–60.PubMedCrossRef Maffulli N, Papalia R, Zampogna B, Torre G, Albo E, Denaro V. The management of osteomyelitis in the adult. Surgeon. 2016;14(6):345–60.PubMedCrossRef
108.
go back to reference Diagnosis and management of bone infections. Jauregui LE, editor. New York, M. Dekker, 1995. Diagnosis and management of bone infections. Jauregui LE, editor. New York, M. Dekker, 1995.
109.
go back to reference Mandell JC, Khurana B, Smith JT, Czuczman GJ, Ghazikhanian V, Smith SE. Osteomyelitis of the lower extremity: pathophysiology, imaging, and classification, with an emphasis on diabetic foot infection. Emerg Radiol. 2018;25(2):175–88.PubMedCrossRef Mandell JC, Khurana B, Smith JT, Czuczman GJ, Ghazikhanian V, Smith SE. Osteomyelitis of the lower extremity: pathophysiology, imaging, and classification, with an emphasis on diabetic foot infection. Emerg Radiol. 2018;25(2):175–88.PubMedCrossRef
110.
go back to reference Pineda C, Vargas A, Rodriguez AV. Imaging of osteomyelitis: current concepts. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006;20(4):789–825.PubMedCrossRef Pineda C, Vargas A, Rodriguez AV. Imaging of osteomyelitis: current concepts. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006;20(4):789–825.PubMedCrossRef
111.
go back to reference Jennin F, Bousson V, Parlier C, Jomaah N, Khanine V, Laredo JD. Bony sequestrum: a radiologic review. Skeletal Radiol. 2011;40(8):963–75.PubMedCrossRef Jennin F, Bousson V, Parlier C, Jomaah N, Khanine V, Laredo JD. Bony sequestrum: a radiologic review. Skeletal Radiol. 2011;40(8):963–75.PubMedCrossRef
112.
go back to reference Dorland’s illustrated medical dictionary 25th edn. Friel, JP, editor. Philadelphia, London, Toronto. W.B. Saunders, 1974. Dorland’s illustrated medical dictionary 25th edn. Friel, JP, editor. Philadelphia, London, Toronto. W.B. Saunders, 1974.
113.
go back to reference Madsen JL. Bone SPECT/CT detection of a sequestrum in chronic-infected nonunion of the tibia. Clin Nucl Med. 2008;33(10):700–1.PubMedCrossRef Madsen JL. Bone SPECT/CT detection of a sequestrum in chronic-infected nonunion of the tibia. Clin Nucl Med. 2008;33(10):700–1.PubMedCrossRef
114.
go back to reference Lankinen P, Seppanen M, Mattila K, Kallajoki M, Knuuti J, Aro HT. Intensity of (18)F-FDG PET uptake in culture-negative and culture-positive cases of chronic osteomyelitis. Contrast Media Mol Imaging. 2017;2017:9754293.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Lankinen P, Seppanen M, Mattila K, Kallajoki M, Knuuti J, Aro HT. Intensity of (18)F-FDG PET uptake in culture-negative and culture-positive cases of chronic osteomyelitis. Contrast Media Mol Imaging. 2017;2017:9754293.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
115.
go back to reference Brady RA, Leid JG, Calhoun JH, Costerton JW, Shirtliff ME. Osteomyelitis and the role of biofilms in chronic infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2008;52(1):13–22.PubMedCrossRef Brady RA, Leid JG, Calhoun JH, Costerton JW, Shirtliff ME. Osteomyelitis and the role of biofilms in chronic infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2008;52(1):13–22.PubMedCrossRef
116.
go back to reference Capitanio MA, Kirkpatrick JA. Early roentgen observations in acute osteomyelitis. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1970;108(3):488–96.PubMedCrossRef Capitanio MA, Kirkpatrick JA. Early roentgen observations in acute osteomyelitis. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1970;108(3):488–96.PubMedCrossRef
117.
go back to reference Bonakdar-pour A, Gaines VD. The radiology of osteomyelitis. Orthop Clin North Am. 1983;14(1):21–37.PubMedCrossRef Bonakdar-pour A, Gaines VD. The radiology of osteomyelitis. Orthop Clin North Am. 1983;14(1):21–37.PubMedCrossRef
118.
go back to reference Azouz EM. Computed tomography in bone and joint infections. J Can Assoc Radiol. 1981;32(2):102–6.PubMed Azouz EM. Computed tomography in bone and joint infections. J Can Assoc Radiol. 1981;32(2):102–6.PubMed
119.
go back to reference Davies AM, Grimer R. The penumbra sign in subacute osteomyelitis. Eur Radiol. 2005;15(6):1268–70.PubMedCrossRef Davies AM, Grimer R. The penumbra sign in subacute osteomyelitis. Eur Radiol. 2005;15(6):1268–70.PubMedCrossRef
120.
go back to reference Unger E, Moldofsky P, Gatenby R, Hartz W, Broder G. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis by MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150(3):605–10.PubMedCrossRef Unger E, Moldofsky P, Gatenby R, Hartz W, Broder G. Diagnosis of osteomyelitis by MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150(3):605–10.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
MRI nomenclature for musculoskeletal infection
Authors
Erin F. Alaia
Avneesh Chhabra
Claus S. Simpfendorfer
Micah Cohen
Douglas N. Mintz
Josephina A. Vossen
Adam C. Zoga
Jan Fritz
Charles E. Spritzer
David G. Armstrong
William B. Morrison
Publication date
01-12-2021
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
Skeletal Radiology / Issue 12/2021
Print ISSN: 0364-2348
Electronic ISSN: 1432-2161
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-021-03807-7

Other articles of this Issue 12/2021

Skeletal Radiology 12/2021 Go to the issue