Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Pain and Headache Reports 8/2013

01-08-2013 | Myofascial Pain (R Gerwin, Section Editor)

Fascial Components of the Myofascial Pain Syndrome

Authors: Antonio Stecco, Marco Gesi, Carla Stecco, Robert Stern

Published in: Current Pain and Headache Reports | Issue 8/2013

Login to get access

Abstract

Myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) is described as the muscle, sensory, motor, and autonomic nervous system symptoms caused by stimulation of myofascial trigger points (MTP). The participation of fascia in this syndrome has often been neglected. Several manual and physical approaches have been proposed to improve myofascial function after traumatic injuries, but the processes that induce pathological modifications of myofascial tissue after trauma remain unclear. Alterations in collagen fiber composition, in fibroblasts or in extracellular matrix composition have been postulated. We summarize here recent developments in the biology of fascia, and in particular, its associated hyaluronan (HA)-rich matrix that address the issue of MPS.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Simons DG, Travel JG, Simons LS. Myofascial pain and dysfunction: the trigger point manual. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 1999. Simons DG, Travel JG, Simons LS. Myofascial pain and dysfunction: the trigger point manual. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 1999.
2.
go back to reference Mayers TW. Anatomy trains. 1st ed. Oxford, UK: Churchill Livingstone; 2001. Mayers TW. Anatomy trains. 1st ed. Oxford, UK: Churchill Livingstone; 2001.
3.
go back to reference Stecco L. Fascial manipulation. 1st ed. Padua: Piccin; 2004. Stecco L. Fascial manipulation. 1st ed. Padua: Piccin; 2004.
4.
go back to reference Day JA, Stecco C, Stecco A. Application of fascial manipulation technique in chronic shoulder pain‒anatomical basis and clinical implications. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:128–35. Day JA, Stecco C, Stecco A. Application of fascial manipulation technique in chronic shoulder pain‒anatomical basis and clinical implications. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:128–35.
5.
go back to reference Pedrelli A, Stecco C, Day JA. Treating patellar tendinopathy with fascial manipulation. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:73–80. Pedrelli A, Stecco C, Day JA. Treating patellar tendinopathy with fascial manipulation. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:73–80.
6.
go back to reference Langevin HM, Fox JR, Koptiuch C, Badger GJ, Greenan-Naumann AC, Bouffard NA, et al. Reduced thoracolumbar fascia shear strain in human chronic low back pain. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12:203. Langevin HM, Fox JR, Koptiuch C, Badger GJ, Greenan-Naumann AC, Bouffard NA, et al. Reduced thoracolumbar fascia shear strain in human chronic low back pain. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12:203.
7.
go back to reference Stedman’s medical dictionary. 26th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1995. Stedman’s medical dictionary. 26th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1995.
8.
go back to reference Stecco C, Pavan PG, Porzionato A, Macchi V, Lancerotto L, Carniel EL, et al. Mechanics of crural fascia: from anatomy to constitutive modeling. Surg Radiol Anat. 2009;31:523–9. Stecco C, Pavan PG, Porzionato A, Macchi V, Lancerotto L, Carniel EL, et al. Mechanics of crural fascia: from anatomy to constitutive modeling. Surg Radiol Anat. 2009;31:523–9.
9.
go back to reference Benetazzo L, Bizzego A, De Caro R, Frigo G, Guidolin D, Stecco C. 3D reconstruction of the crural and thoracolumbar fasciae. Surg Radiol Anat. 2011;33:855–62.PubMedCrossRef Benetazzo L, Bizzego A, De Caro R, Frigo G, Guidolin D, Stecco C. 3D reconstruction of the crural and thoracolumbar fasciae. Surg Radiol Anat. 2011;33:855–62.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Tesarz J, Hoheisel U, Wiedenhöfer B, Mense S. Sensory innervation of the thoracolumbar fascia in rats and humans. Neuroscience. 2011;194:302–8. Tesarz J, Hoheisel U, Wiedenhöfer B, Mense S. Sensory innervation of the thoracolumbar fascia in rats and humans. Neuroscience. 2011;194:302–8.
11.
go back to reference Stilwell Jr DL. Regional variations in the innervation of deep fasciae and aponeuroses. Anat Rec. 1957;127:635–53.PubMedCrossRef Stilwell Jr DL. Regional variations in the innervation of deep fasciae and aponeuroses. Anat Rec. 1957;127:635–53.PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Tanaka S, Ito T. Histochemical demonstration of adrenergic fibers in the fascia periosteum and retinaculum. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;126:276–81.PubMed Tanaka S, Ito T. Histochemical demonstration of adrenergic fibers in the fascia periosteum and retinaculum. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;126:276–81.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Palmieri G, Panu R, Asole A. Macroscopic organization and sensitive innervation of the tendinous intersection and the Lacertus Fibrosus of the Biceps Brachii muscle in the ass end of a horse. Arch Anat Histol Embryol. 1986;69:73–82.PubMed Palmieri G, Panu R, Asole A. Macroscopic organization and sensitive innervation of the tendinous intersection and the Lacertus Fibrosus of the Biceps Brachii muscle in the ass end of a horse. Arch Anat Histol Embryol. 1986;69:73–82.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Yahia L, Rhalmi S, Newman N, Isler M. Sensory innervation of human thoracolumbar fascia. An immunohistochemical study. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63:195–7.PubMedCrossRef Yahia L, Rhalmi S, Newman N, Isler M. Sensory innervation of human thoracolumbar fascia. An immunohistochemical study. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63:195–7.PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Sanchis-Alfonso V, Roselló-Sastre E. Immunohistochemical analysis for neural markers of the lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated symptomatic patellofemoral malalignment. A neuroanatomic basis for anterior knee pain in the active young patient. Am J Sports Med. 2000;28:725–31.PubMed Sanchis-Alfonso V, Roselló-Sastre E. Immunohistochemical analysis for neural markers of the lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated symptomatic patellofemoral malalignment. A neuroanatomic basis for anterior knee pain in the active young patient. Am J Sports Med. 2000;28:725–31.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Stecco C, Gagey O, Belloni A, Pozzuoli A, Porzionato A, Macchi V, et al. Anatomy of the deep fascia of the upper limb. Second part: study of innervation. Morphologie. 2007;91:38–43.PubMedCrossRef Stecco C, Gagey O, Belloni A, Pozzuoli A, Porzionato A, Macchi V, et al. Anatomy of the deep fascia of the upper limb. Second part: study of innervation. Morphologie. 2007;91:38–43.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Corey SM, Vizzard MA, Badger GJ, Langevin HM. Sensory innervation of the nonspecialized connective tissues in the low back of the rat. Cells Tissues Organs. 2011;194:521–30. Corey SM, Vizzard MA, Badger GJ, Langevin HM. Sensory innervation of the nonspecialized connective tissues in the low back of the rat. Cells Tissues Organs. 2011;194:521–30.
18.
go back to reference Testut L, Jacob O. Trattato di anatomia topografica. Firenze: UTE. 1987. Testut L, Jacob O. Trattato di anatomia topografica. Firenze: UTE. 1987.
19.
go back to reference Chiarugi G, Bucciante L. Istituzioni di Anatomia dell'uomo. Padova: Vallardi-Piccin; 1975. Chiarugi G, Bucciante L. Istituzioni di Anatomia dell'uomo. Padova: Vallardi-Piccin; 1975.
20.
go back to reference Platzer W. Apparato locomotore. Milano: Ambrosiana; 1979. Platzer W. Apparato locomotore. Milano: Ambrosiana; 1979.
21.
go back to reference Huijing PA, Baan GC. Myofascial force transmission causes interaction between adjacent muscles and connective tissue: effects of blunt dissection and compartmental fasciotomy on length force characteristics of rat extensor digitorum longus muscle. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2001;109:97–109.PubMedCrossRef Huijing PA, Baan GC. Myofascial force transmission causes interaction between adjacent muscles and connective tissue: effects of blunt dissection and compartmental fasciotomy on length force characteristics of rat extensor digitorum longus muscle. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2001;109:97–109.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Standring L. Single referrals for inpatient and community rehabilitation. Nurs Times. 2005;101:34–6.PubMed Standring L. Single referrals for inpatient and community rehabilitation. Nurs Times. 2005;101:34–6.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Moore KL, Dalley AF, Agur AMR. Clinically oriented anatomy. 5th ed. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2006. Moore KL, Dalley AF, Agur AMR. Clinically oriented anatomy. 5th ed. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2006.
24.
go back to reference Stecco A, Masiero S, Macchi V, Stecco C, Porzionato A, De Caro R. The pectoral fascia: anatomical and histological study. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:255–61. Stecco A, Masiero S, Macchi V, Stecco C, Porzionato A, De Caro R. The pectoral fascia: anatomical and histological study. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2009;13:255–61.
25.
go back to reference Stecco C, Macchi V, Porzionato A, Morra A, Parenti A, Stecco A, et al. The ankle retinacula: morphological evidence of the proprioceptive role of the fascial system. Cells Tissues Organs. 2010;192:200–10.PubMedCrossRef Stecco C, Macchi V, Porzionato A, Morra A, Parenti A, Stecco A, et al. The ankle retinacula: morphological evidence of the proprioceptive role of the fascial system. Cells Tissues Organs. 2010;192:200–10.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Stecco A, Gilliar W, Hill R, Fullerton B, Stecco C. The anatomical and functional relation between gluteus maximus and fascia lata. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2013 (in press). Stecco A, Gilliar W, Hill R, Fullerton B, Stecco C. The anatomical and functional relation between gluteus maximus and fascia lata. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2013 (in press).
27.
go back to reference Toumi H, Higashiyama I, Suzuki D, Kumai T, Bydder G, McGonagle D, et al. Regional variations in human patellar trabecular architecture and the structure of the proximal patellar tendon enthesis. J Anat. 2006;208:47–57.PubMedCrossRef Toumi H, Higashiyama I, Suzuki D, Kumai T, Bydder G, McGonagle D, et al. Regional variations in human patellar trabecular architecture and the structure of the proximal patellar tendon enthesis. J Anat. 2006;208:47–57.PubMedCrossRef
28.
go back to reference Wood JF. Structure and function as seen in the foot. London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox; 1944. Wood JF. Structure and function as seen in the foot. London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox; 1944.
29.
go back to reference Snow SW, Bohne WH, DiCarlo E, Chang VK. Anatomy of the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia in relation to the calcaneus in various age groups. Foot Ankle Int. 1995;16:418–21.PubMedCrossRef Snow SW, Bohne WH, DiCarlo E, Chang VK. Anatomy of the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia in relation to the calcaneus in various age groups. Foot Ankle Int. 1995;16:418–21.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Milz S, Rufai A, Buettner A, Putz R, Ralphs JR, Benjamin M. Three-dimensional reconstructions of the Achilles tendon insertion in man. J Anat. 2002;200:145–52.PubMedCrossRef Milz S, Rufai A, Buettner A, Putz R, Ralphs JR, Benjamin M. Three-dimensional reconstructions of the Achilles tendon insertion in man. J Anat. 2002;200:145–52.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Benjamin M. The fascia of the limbs and back--a review. J Anat. 2009;214: 1–18. Review. Benjamin M. The fascia of the limbs and back--a review. J Anat. 2009;214: 1–18. Review.
32.
go back to reference Stecco C, Gagey O, Macchi V, Porzionato A, De Caro R, Aldegheri R, et al. Tendinous muscular insertions onto the deep fascia of the upper limb. First part: anatomical study. Morphologie. 2007;91:29–37.PubMedCrossRef Stecco C, Gagey O, Macchi V, Porzionato A, De Caro R, Aldegheri R, et al. Tendinous muscular insertions onto the deep fascia of the upper limb. First part: anatomical study. Morphologie. 2007;91:29–37.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Gerlach UJ, Lierse W. Functional construction of the superficial and deep fascia system of the lower limb in man. Acta Anat. 1990;139:11–25.PubMedCrossRef Gerlach UJ, Lierse W. Functional construction of the superficial and deep fascia system of the lower limb in man. Acta Anat. 1990;139:11–25.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Beninghoff G. Trattato di anatomia umana. Padova: Piccin; 1972. Beninghoff G. Trattato di anatomia umana. Padova: Piccin; 1972.
35.
go back to reference Purslow PP. Muscle fascia and force transmission. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2010;14: 411–7. Review. Purslow PP. Muscle fascia and force transmission. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2010;14: 411–7. Review.
36.
go back to reference Trotter JA, Purslow PP. Functional morphology of the endomysium in series fibered muscles. J Morphol. 1992;212:109–22.PubMedCrossRef Trotter JA, Purslow PP. Functional morphology of the endomysium in series fibered muscles. J Morphol. 1992;212:109–22.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Passerieux E, Rossignol R, Chopard A, Carnino A, Marini JF, Letellier T, et al. Structural organization of the perimysium in bovine skeletal muscle: junctional plates and associated intracellular subdomains. J Struct Biol. 2006;154:206–16.PubMedCrossRef Passerieux E, Rossignol R, Chopard A, Carnino A, Marini JF, Letellier T, et al. Structural organization of the perimysium in bovine skeletal muscle: junctional plates and associated intracellular subdomains. J Struct Biol. 2006;154:206–16.PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Purslow PP. Strain-induced reorientation of an intramuscular connective tissue network: implications for passive muscle elasticity. J Biomech. 1989;22:21–31.PubMedCrossRef Purslow PP. Strain-induced reorientation of an intramuscular connective tissue network: implications for passive muscle elasticity. J Biomech. 1989;22:21–31.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference McCombe D, Brown T, Slavin J, Morrison WA. The histochemical structure of the deep fascia and its structural response to surgery. J Hand Surg Br. 2001;26:89–97.PubMedCrossRef McCombe D, Brown T, Slavin J, Morrison WA. The histochemical structure of the deep fascia and its structural response to surgery. J Hand Surg Br. 2001;26:89–97.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Gao Y, Kostrominova TY, Faulkner JA, Wineman AS. Age-related changes in the mechanical properties of the epimysium in skeletal muscles of rats. J Biomech. 2008;41:465–9.PubMedCrossRef Gao Y, Kostrominova TY, Faulkner JA, Wineman AS. Age-related changes in the mechanical properties of the epimysium in skeletal muscles of rats. J Biomech. 2008;41:465–9.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Boyd-Clark LC, Briggs CA, Galea MP. Muscle spindle distribution, morphology, and density in longus colli and multifidus muscles of the cervical spine. Spine. 2002;27:694–701.PubMedCrossRef Boyd-Clark LC, Briggs CA, Galea MP. Muscle spindle distribution, morphology, and density in longus colli and multifidus muscles of the cervical spine. Spine. 2002;27:694–701.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Maier A. Proportions of slow myosin heavy chain-positive fibers in muscle spindles and adjoining extrafusal fascicles, and the positioning of spindles relative to these fascicles. J Morphol. 1999;242:157–65.PubMedCrossRef Maier A. Proportions of slow myosin heavy chain-positive fibers in muscle spindles and adjoining extrafusal fascicles, and the positioning of spindles relative to these fascicles. J Morphol. 1999;242:157–65.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Strasmann T, van der Wal JC, Halata Z, Drukker J. Functional topography and ultrastructure of periarticular mechanoreceptors in the lateral elbow region of the rat. Acta Anat. 1990;138:1–14.PubMedCrossRef Strasmann T, van der Wal JC, Halata Z, Drukker J. Functional topography and ultrastructure of periarticular mechanoreceptors in the lateral elbow region of the rat. Acta Anat. 1990;138:1–14.PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Von During M, Andres KH. Topography and fine structure of proprioceptors in the hagfish. Myxine glutinosa. Eur J Morphol. 1994;32:248–56. Von During M, Andres KH. Topography and fine structure of proprioceptors in the hagfish. Myxine glutinosa. Eur J Morphol. 1994;32:248–56.
45.
go back to reference Hubbard DR, Berkoff GM. Myofascial trigger points show spontaneous needle EMG activity. Spine. 1993;18:1803–7.PubMedCrossRef Hubbard DR, Berkoff GM. Myofascial trigger points show spontaneous needle EMG activity. Spine. 1993;18:1803–7.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Mense S. [Pathophysiology of low back pain and the transition to the chronic state - experimental data and new concepts]. Schmerz. 2001;15:413–7. Mense S. [Pathophysiology of low back pain and the transition to the chronic state - experimental data and new concepts]. Schmerz. 2001;15:413–7.
47.
go back to reference Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol. 1995;57:289–300. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol. 1995;57:289–300.
48.
go back to reference Panjabi MM, Cholewicki J, Nibu K, Grauer JN, Babat LB, Dvorakd J. Mechanism of whiplash injury. Clin Biomech. 1998;13:239–49.CrossRef Panjabi MM, Cholewicki J, Nibu K, Grauer JN, Babat LB, Dvorakd J. Mechanism of whiplash injury. Clin Biomech. 1998;13:239–49.CrossRef
49.
go back to reference Jull GA, Kristjansson E, Dall'Alba P. Impairment in the cervical flexors: a comparison of whiplash and insidious onset neck pain patients. Man Ther. 2004;9:89–94.PubMedCrossRef Jull GA, Kristjansson E, Dall'Alba P. Impairment in the cervical flexors: a comparison of whiplash and insidious onset neck pain patients. Man Ther. 2004;9:89–94.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Jull GA, O'Leary SP, Falla DL. Clinical assessment of the deep cervical flexor muscle: the creaniocervical flexion test. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2008;31:525–33.PubMedCrossRef Jull GA, O'Leary SP, Falla DL. Clinical assessment of the deep cervical flexor muscle: the creaniocervical flexion test. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2008;31:525–33.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Jull GA. Deep cervical neck flexor dysfunction in whiplash. J Muscoloskel Pain. 2000;8:143–54.CrossRef Jull GA. Deep cervical neck flexor dysfunction in whiplash. J Muscoloskel Pain. 2000;8:143–54.CrossRef
52.
go back to reference Elliott M, O'Leary S, Sterling M, Hendrikz J, Pedler A, Jull G. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of fatty infiltrate in the cervical flexors in chronic whiplash. Spine. 2010;35:948–54.PubMedCrossRef Elliott M, O'Leary S, Sterling M, Hendrikz J, Pedler A, Jull G. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of fatty infiltrate in the cervical flexors in chronic whiplash. Spine. 2010;35:948–54.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Schleip R, Vleeming A, Lehmann-Horn F, Klingler W. Letter to the editor concerning "A hypothesis of chronic back pain: ligament subfailure injuries lead to muscle control dysfunction" (M Panjabi). Eur Spine. 2007;16:1733–5.CrossRef Schleip R, Vleeming A, Lehmann-Horn F, Klingler W. Letter to the editor concerning "A hypothesis of chronic back pain: ligament subfailure injuries lead to muscle control dysfunction" (M Panjabi). Eur Spine. 2007;16:1733–5.CrossRef
54.
go back to reference Hammer WI. Functional soft-tissue examination and treatment by manual methods. 3° ed. Sudbury, ON: Jones & Barlett Pub; 2007. Hammer WI. Functional soft-tissue examination and treatment by manual methods. 3° ed. Sudbury, ON: Jones & Barlett Pub; 2007.
55.
go back to reference Bell J, Holmes M. Model of the dynamics of receptor potential in a mechanoreceptor. Math Biosci. 1992;110:139–74.PubMedCrossRef Bell J, Holmes M. Model of the dynamics of receptor potential in a mechanoreceptor. Math Biosci. 1992;110:139–74.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Damiano RE. Late onset regression after myopic keratomileusis. J Refract Surg. 1999;15:160.PubMed Damiano RE. Late onset regression after myopic keratomileusis. J Refract Surg. 1999;15:160.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Loewenstein WR, Skalak R. Mechanical transmission in a Pacinian corpuscle. An analysis and a theory. J Physiol. 1966;182:346–78.PubMed Loewenstein WR, Skalak R. Mechanical transmission in a Pacinian corpuscle. An analysis and a theory. J Physiol. 1966;182:346–78.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Swerup C, Rydqvist B. A mathematical model of the crustacean stretch receptor neuron. Biomechanics of the receptor muscle, mechanosensitive ion channels, and macrotransducer properties. J Neurophysiol. 1996;76:2211–20.PubMed Swerup C, Rydqvist B. A mathematical model of the crustacean stretch receptor neuron. Biomechanics of the receptor muscle, mechanosensitive ion channels, and macrotransducer properties. J Neurophysiol. 1996;76:2211–20.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Husmark I, Ottoson D. The contribution of mechanical factors to the early adaptation of the spindle response. Physiol. 1971;212:577–92. Husmark I, Ottoson D. The contribution of mechanical factors to the early adaptation of the spindle response. Physiol. 1971;212:577–92.
60.
go back to reference Wilkinson RS, Fukami Y. Responses of isolated Golgi tendon organs of cat to sinusoidal stretch. J Neurophysiol. 1983;49:976–88.PubMed Wilkinson RS, Fukami Y. Responses of isolated Golgi tendon organs of cat to sinusoidal stretch. J Neurophysiol. 1983;49:976–88.PubMed
61.
go back to reference Deising S, Weinkauf B, Blunk J, Obreja O, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. NGF-evoked sensitization of muscle fascia nociceptors in humans. Pain. 2012;153:1673–9. Deising S, Weinkauf B, Blunk J, Obreja O, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. NGF-evoked sensitization of muscle fascia nociceptors in humans. Pain. 2012;153:1673–9.
62.
go back to reference Bednar DA, Orr FW, Simon GT. Observations on the pathomorphology of the thoracolumbar fascia in chronic mechanical back pain. A microscopic study. Spine. 1995;20:1161–4.PubMedCrossRef Bednar DA, Orr FW, Simon GT. Observations on the pathomorphology of the thoracolumbar fascia in chronic mechanical back pain. A microscopic study. Spine. 1995;20:1161–4.PubMedCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Lee JY, Spicer AP. Hyaluronan: a multifunctional, megaDalton, stealth molecule. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2000;12:581–6.PubMedCrossRef Lee JY, Spicer AP. Hyaluronan: a multifunctional, megaDalton, stealth molecule. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2000;12:581–6.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Day AJ, Sheehan JK. Hyaluronan: polysaccharide chaos to protein organization. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2002;11:617–22.CrossRef Day AJ, Sheehan JK. Hyaluronan: polysaccharide chaos to protein organization. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2002;11:617–22.CrossRef
67.
go back to reference Delmage JM, Powars DR, Jaynes PK, Allerton SE. The selective suppression of immunogenicity by hyaluronic acid. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1986;16:303–10.PubMed Delmage JM, Powars DR, Jaynes PK, Allerton SE. The selective suppression of immunogenicity by hyaluronic acid. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1986;16:303–10.PubMed
68.
go back to reference McBride WH, Bard JB. Hyaluronidase-sensitive halos around adherent cells. Their role in blocking lymphocyte-mediated cytolysis. J Exp Med. 1979;149:507–15.PubMedCrossRef McBride WH, Bard JB. Hyaluronidase-sensitive halos around adherent cells. Their role in blocking lymphocyte-mediated cytolysis. J Exp Med. 1979;149:507–15.PubMedCrossRef
69.
70.
go back to reference Fraser JRE, Laurent TC, Laurent UBG. Hyaluronan: its nature, distribution, functions and turnover. J Internal Med. 1997;242:27–33.PubMedCrossRef Fraser JRE, Laurent TC, Laurent UBG. Hyaluronan: its nature, distribution, functions and turnover. J Internal Med. 1997;242:27–33.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Piehl-Aulin K, Laurent C, Engström-Laurent A, Hellström S, Henriksson J. Hyaluronan in human skeletal muscle of lower extremity: concentration, distribution, and effect of exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1991;71:2493–8.PubMed Piehl-Aulin K, Laurent C, Engström-Laurent A, Hellström S, Henriksson J. Hyaluronan in human skeletal muscle of lower extremity: concentration, distribution, and effect of exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1991;71:2493–8.PubMed
72.
go back to reference Klein DM, Katzman BM, Mesa JA, Lipton JF, Caligiuri DA. Histology of the extensor retinaculum of the wrist and the ankle. J Hand Surg Am. 1999;24:799–802.PubMedCrossRef Klein DM, Katzman BM, Mesa JA, Lipton JF, Caligiuri DA. Histology of the extensor retinaculum of the wrist and the ankle. J Hand Surg Am. 1999;24:799–802.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Ellis FD, Seiler 3rd JG, Sewell CW. The second annular pulley: a histologic examination. J Hand Surg Am. 1995;20:632–5.PubMedCrossRef Ellis FD, Seiler 3rd JG, Sewell CW. The second annular pulley: a histologic examination. J Hand Surg Am. 1995;20:632–5.PubMedCrossRef
74.
go back to reference Katzman BM, Klein DM, Garven TC, Caligiuri DA, Kung J. Comparative histology of the annular and cruciform pulleys. J Hand Surg Br. 1999;24:272–4.PubMedCrossRef Katzman BM, Klein DM, Garven TC, Caligiuri DA, Kung J. Comparative histology of the annular and cruciform pulleys. J Hand Surg Br. 1999;24:272–4.PubMedCrossRef
75.
go back to reference • Stecco C, Stern R, Porzionato A, Macchi V, Masiero S, Stecco A, et al. Hyaluronan within fascia in the etiology of myofascial pain. Surg Radiol Anat. 2011;33:891–6. These authors were the first to correlate the alteration of the viscosity of the hyaluronic acid with the alteration of the deep fascia and the etiology of myofascial pain.PubMedCrossRef • Stecco C, Stern R, Porzionato A, Macchi V, Masiero S, Stecco A, et al. Hyaluronan within fascia in the etiology of myofascial pain. Surg Radiol Anat. 2011;33:891–6. These authors were the first to correlate the alteration of the viscosity of the hyaluronic acid with the alteration of the deep fascia and the etiology of myofascial pain.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Scott JE, Heatley F. Biological properties of hyaluronan in aqueous solution are controlled and sequestered by reversible tertiary structures, defined by NMR spectroscopy. Biomacromolecules. 2002;3:547–53.PubMedCrossRef Scott JE, Heatley F. Biological properties of hyaluronan in aqueous solution are controlled and sequestered by reversible tertiary structures, defined by NMR spectroscopy. Biomacromolecules. 2002;3:547–53.PubMedCrossRef
77.
go back to reference Matteini P, Dei L, Carretti E, Volpi N, Goti A, Pini R. Structural behavior of highly concentrated hyaluronan. Biomacromolecules. 2009;10:1516–22.PubMedCrossRef Matteini P, Dei L, Carretti E, Volpi N, Goti A, Pini R. Structural behavior of highly concentrated hyaluronan. Biomacromolecules. 2009;10:1516–22.PubMedCrossRef
78.
go back to reference Juel C, Bangsbo J, Graham T, Saltin B. Lactate and potassium fluxes from human skeletal muscle during and after intense, dynamic, knee extensor exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1990;140:147–59.PubMedCrossRef Juel C, Bangsbo J, Graham T, Saltin B. Lactate and potassium fluxes from human skeletal muscle during and after intense, dynamic, knee extensor exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1990;140:147–59.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference Nielsen JJ, Mohr M, Klarskov C, Kristensen M, Krustrup P, Juel C, et al. Effects of high-intensity intermittent training on potassium kinetics and performance in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2004;554:857–70.PubMedCrossRef Nielsen JJ, Mohr M, Klarskov C, Kristensen M, Krustrup P, Juel C, et al. Effects of high-intensity intermittent training on potassium kinetics and performance in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2004;554:857–70.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference Juel C, Klarskov C, Nielsen JJ, Krustrup P, Mohr M, Bangsbo J. Effect of high-intensity intermittent training on lactate and H + release from human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286:E245–51.PubMedCrossRef Juel C, Klarskov C, Nielsen JJ, Krustrup P, Mohr M, Bangsbo J. Effect of high-intensity intermittent training on lactate and H + release from human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286:E245–51.PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference Gatej I, Popa M, Rinaudo M. Role of the pH on hyaluronan behavior in aqueous solution. Biomacromolecules. 2005;6:61–7.PubMedCrossRef Gatej I, Popa M, Rinaudo M. Role of the pH on hyaluronan behavior in aqueous solution. Biomacromolecules. 2005;6:61–7.PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Noble PW. Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol. 2002;21:2529.CrossRef Noble PW. Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol. 2002;21:2529.CrossRef
83.
go back to reference Noble PW. Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol. 2002;21:25–9.PubMedCrossRef Noble PW. Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol. 2002;21:25–9.PubMedCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Noble PW, Lake FR, Henson PM, Riches DW. Hyaluronate activation of CD44 induces insulin-like growth factor-1 expression by a tumor necrosis factoralpha- dependent mechanism in murine macrophages. J Clin Invest. 1993;91:2368–77.PubMedCrossRef Noble PW, Lake FR, Henson PM, Riches DW. Hyaluronate activation of CD44 induces insulin-like growth factor-1 expression by a tumor necrosis factoralpha- dependent mechanism in murine macrophages. J Clin Invest. 1993;91:2368–77.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Hodge-Dufour J, Noble PW, Horton MR, Bao C, Wysoka M, Burdick MD, et al. Induction of IL-12 and chemokines by hyaluronan requires adhesion-dependent priming of resident but not elicited macrophages. J Immunol. 1997;159:2492–500.PubMed Hodge-Dufour J, Noble PW, Horton MR, Bao C, Wysoka M, Burdick MD, et al. Induction of IL-12 and chemokines by hyaluronan requires adhesion-dependent priming of resident but not elicited macrophages. J Immunol. 1997;159:2492–500.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Horton MR, Olman MA, Noble P. Hyaluronan fragments induce plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and inhibit urokinase activity in mouse alveolar macrophages: a potential mechanism for impaired fibrinolytic activity in acute lung injury. Chest. 1999;116:17S.PubMedCrossRef Horton MR, Olman MA, Noble P. Hyaluronan fragments induce plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and inhibit urokinase activity in mouse alveolar macrophages: a potential mechanism for impaired fibrinolytic activity in acute lung injury. Chest. 1999;116:17S.PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference McKee CM, Penno MB, Cowman M, Burdick MD, Strieter RM, Bao C, et al. Hyaluronan (HA) fragments induce chemokine gene expression in alveolar macrophages. The role of HA size and CD44. J Clin Invest. 1996;98:2403–13.PubMedCrossRef McKee CM, Penno MB, Cowman M, Burdick MD, Strieter RM, Bao C, et al. Hyaluronan (HA) fragments induce chemokine gene expression in alveolar macrophages. The role of HA size and CD44. J Clin Invest. 1996;98:2403–13.PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference McKee CM, Lowenstein CJ, Horton MR, Wu J, Bao C, Chin BY, et al. Hyaluronan fragments induce nitric-oxide synthase in murine macrophages through a nuclear factor NF-kB-dependent mechanism. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:8013–8.PubMedCrossRef McKee CM, Lowenstein CJ, Horton MR, Wu J, Bao C, Chin BY, et al. Hyaluronan fragments induce nitric-oxide synthase in murine macrophages through a nuclear factor NF-kB-dependent mechanism. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:8013–8.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Stern R, Asari R, Sugahara KN. Size- specific fragments of hyaluronan: an information-rich system. Eur J Cell Biol. 2006;85:699–715.PubMedCrossRef Stern R, Asari R, Sugahara KN. Size- specific fragments of hyaluronan: an information-rich system. Eur J Cell Biol. 2006;85:699–715.PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Stecco A, Meneghini A, Stern R, Stecco C, Imamura M. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis of myofascial neck pain. J Rehabil Med. 2013. [In press]. Stecco A, Meneghini A, Stern R, Stecco C, Imamura M. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis of myofascial neck pain. J Rehabil Med. 2013. [In press].
91.
go back to reference Jensen I, Harms-Ringdahl K. Strategies for prevention and management of musculoskeletal conditions. Neck pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2007;21:93–108. Review.PubMedCrossRef Jensen I, Harms-Ringdahl K. Strategies for prevention and management of musculoskeletal conditions. Neck pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2007;21:93–108. Review.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Shultz SP, Driban JB, Swanik CB. The evaluation of electrodermal properties in the identification of myofascial trigger points. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:780–4.PubMedCrossRef Shultz SP, Driban JB, Swanik CB. The evaluation of electrodermal properties in the identification of myofascial trigger points. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:780–4.PubMedCrossRef
93.
go back to reference Arokoski JP, Surakka J, Ojala T, Kolari P, Jurvelin JS. Feasibility of the use of a novel soft tissue stiffness meter. Physiol Meas. 2005;26:215–28.PubMedCrossRef Arokoski JP, Surakka J, Ojala T, Kolari P, Jurvelin JS. Feasibility of the use of a novel soft tissue stiffness meter. Physiol Meas. 2005;26:215–28.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Ekman EF, Pope T, Martin DF, Curl WW. Magnetic resonance imaging of iliotibial band syndrome. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:851–4.PubMedCrossRef Ekman EF, Pope T, Martin DF, Curl WW. Magnetic resonance imaging of iliotibial band syndrome. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:851–4.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Cardinal E, Chem RK, Beauregard CG, Aubin B, Pelletier M. Plantar fasciitis: sonographic evaluation. Radiology. 1996;201:257–9.PubMed Cardinal E, Chem RK, Beauregard CG, Aubin B, Pelletier M. Plantar fasciitis: sonographic evaluation. Radiology. 1996;201:257–9.PubMed
96.
go back to reference Wall JR, Harkness MA, Crawford A. Ultrasound diagnosis of plantar fasciitis. Foot Ankle. 1993;14:465–70.PubMedCrossRef Wall JR, Harkness MA, Crawford A. Ultrasound diagnosis of plantar fasciitis. Foot Ankle. 1993;14:465–70.PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Yu JS. Pathologic and post-operative conditions of the plantar fascia: review of MR imaging appearances. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29:491–501. Review.PubMedCrossRef Yu JS. Pathologic and post-operative conditions of the plantar fascia: review of MR imaging appearances. Skeletal Radiol. 2000;29:491–501. Review.PubMedCrossRef
98.
go back to reference Greening J, Lynn B, Leary R, Warren L, O’Higgins P, Hall-Craggs M. The use of ultrasound imaging to demonstrate reduced movement of the median nerve during wrist flexion in patients with non-specific arm pain. J Hand Surg Br. 2001;26:401–6.PubMedCrossRef Greening J, Lynn B, Leary R, Warren L, O’Higgins P, Hall-Craggs M. The use of ultrasound imaging to demonstrate reduced movement of the median nerve during wrist flexion in patients with non-specific arm pain. J Hand Surg Br. 2001;26:401–6.PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Hough AD, Moore AP, Jones MP. Reduced longitudinal excursion of the median nerve in carpal tunnel syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:569–76.PubMedCrossRef Hough AD, Moore AP, Jones MP. Reduced longitudinal excursion of the median nerve in carpal tunnel syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:569–76.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Dilley A, Lynn B, Greening J, DeLeon N. Quantitative in vivo studies of median nerve sliding in response to wrist, elbow, shoulder, and neck movements. Clin Biomech. 2003;18:899–907.CrossRef Dilley A, Lynn B, Greening J, DeLeon N. Quantitative in vivo studies of median nerve sliding in response to wrist, elbow, shoulder, and neck movements. Clin Biomech. 2003;18:899–907.CrossRef
101.
go back to reference Ellis R, Hing W, Dilley A, McNair P. Reliability of measuring sciatic and tibial nerve movement with diagnostic ultrasound during a neural mobilization technique. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2008;34:1209–16.PubMedCrossRef Ellis R, Hing W, Dilley A, McNair P. Reliability of measuring sciatic and tibial nerve movement with diagnostic ultrasound during a neural mobilization technique. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2008;34:1209–16.PubMedCrossRef
102.
go back to reference Dilley A, Greening J, Lynn B, Leary R, Morris V. The use of cross-correlation analysis between high-frequency ultrasound images to measure longitudinal median nerve movement. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2001;27:1211–8.PubMedCrossRef Dilley A, Greening J, Lynn B, Leary R, Morris V. The use of cross-correlation analysis between high-frequency ultrasound images to measure longitudinal median nerve movement. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2001;27:1211–8.PubMedCrossRef
103.
go back to reference Lundborg G, Rydevik B. Effects of stretching the tibial nerve of the rabbit. A preliminary study of the intraneural circulation and the barrier function of the perineurium. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1973;55:390–401.PubMed Lundborg G, Rydevik B. Effects of stretching the tibial nerve of the rabbit. A preliminary study of the intraneural circulation and the barrier function of the perineurium. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1973;55:390–401.PubMed
104.
go back to reference Abe Y, Doi K, Kawai S. An experimental model of peripheral nerve adhesion in rabbits. J Plastic Surg Br. 2005;58:533–40.CrossRef Abe Y, Doi K, Kawai S. An experimental model of peripheral nerve adhesion in rabbits. J Plastic Surg Br. 2005;58:533–40.CrossRef
105.
go back to reference Lundborg G, Dahlin LB. Anatomy, function, and pathophysiology of peripheral nerves and nerve compression. Hand Clin. 1996;12:185–93.PubMed Lundborg G, Dahlin LB. Anatomy, function, and pathophysiology of peripheral nerves and nerve compression. Hand Clin. 1996;12:185–93.PubMed
106.
go back to reference Rydevik B, Lundborg G, Nordborg C. Intraneural tissue reactions induced by internal neurolysis. Scand J Plast Reconstru Surg. 1976;10:3–8. Rydevik B, Lundborg G, Nordborg C. Intraneural tissue reactions induced by internal neurolysis. Scand J Plast Reconstru Surg. 1976;10:3–8.
Metadata
Title
Fascial Components of the Myofascial Pain Syndrome
Authors
Antonio Stecco
Marco Gesi
Carla Stecco
Robert Stern
Publication date
01-08-2013
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Pain and Headache Reports / Issue 8/2013
Print ISSN: 1531-3433
Electronic ISSN: 1534-3081
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-013-0352-9

Other articles of this Issue 8/2013

Current Pain and Headache Reports 8/2013 Go to the issue

Myofascial Pain (R Gerwin, Section Editor)

Physiologic Effects of Dry Needling

Myofascial Pain (R Gerwin, Section Editor)

Clinical Implication of Latent Myofascial Trigger Point

Childhood and Adolescent Headache (S Evers, Section Editor)

Migraine-Related Symptoms in Childhood

Fibromyalgia (M Peres, Section Editor)

Worldwide Epidemiology of Fibromyalgia