Top

Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation

Published in:

Open Access 01-12-2009 | Commentary

Exoskeletons and orthoses: classification, design challenges and future directions

Author: Hugh Herr

Published in: Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation | Issue 1/2009

Abstract

For over a century, technologists and scientists have actively sought the development of exoskeletons and orthoses designed to augment human economy, strength, and endurance. While there are still many challenges associated with exoskeletal and orthotic design that have yet to be perfected, the advances in the field have been truly impressive. In this commentary, I first classify exoskeletons and orthoses into devices that act in series and in parallel to a human limb, providing a few examples within each category. This classification is then followed by a discussion of major design challenges and future research directions critical to the field of exoskeletons and orthoses.

Available only for authorised users

Cavagna GA, Heglund NC, Taylor CR: Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 1977, 233: R243-R261.PubMed

Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, Kester RC, Alexander RM: The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature 1987, 325: 147-149.CrossRefPubMed

Alexander RM: Elastic Mechanisms in Animal Movement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1988.

Blickhan R: The spring-mass model for running and hopping. J Biomech 1989, 22: 1217-1227.CrossRefPubMed

McMahon TA, Cheng GC: The mechanics of running: how does stiffness couple with speed? J Biomech 1990,23(suppl 1):65-78.CrossRefPubMed

Farley CT, Glasheen J, McMahon TA: Running springs: speed and animal size. J Exp Biol 1993, 185: 71-86.PubMed

Hogan N: Skeletal muscle impedance in the control of motor actions. Journal of Mechanics in Medicine an Biology 2002,2(3):359-373.CrossRef

McMahon TA, Greene PR: The influence of track compliance on running. J Biomech 1979, 12: 893-904.CrossRefPubMed

Kerdok AE, Biewener AA, McMahon TA, Weyand PG, Herr H: Energetics and mechanics of human running on surfaces of different stiffnesses. J Appl Physiol 2002, 92: 469-478.CrossRefPubMed

10.

Herr H, Gamow RI: Shoe and foot prosthesis with bending beam spring structures. U.S. Patent 5,701,686 1997.

11.

Herr H, Gamow RI: Shoe and foot prosthesis with bending beam spring structures. U.S. Patent 6,029,374 2000.

12.

Dick J, Edwards E: Human Bipedal Locomotion Device. U.S. Patent 5,016,869 1991.

13.

Yagn N: Apparatus for facilitating walking, running, and jumping. U.S. Patent 420179 1890.

14.

Yagn N: Apparatus for facilitating walking, running, and jumping. U.S. Patent 438830 1890.

15.

Herr H, Walsh C, Valiente A, Pasch K: Exoskeletons for running and walking. U.S. Patent Application 60/736,929 2006.

16.

Grabowski AM, Herr H: Leg exoskeleton reduces the metabolic cost of human hopping. J Appl Physiol 2009, in press.

17.

Kazerooni H, Steger R: The Berkeley lower extremity exoskeleton. Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurements, and Control 2006, 128: 14-25.CrossRef

18.

Zoss AB, Kazerooni H, Chu A: Biomechanical design of the Berkeley lower extremity exoskeleton (BLEEX). IEEE ASME Trans Mechatron 2006,11(2):128-138.CrossRef

19.

Chu A, Kazerooni H, Zozz A: On the biomimetic design of the berkeley lower extremity exoskeleton (BLEEX). Proc. of the 2006 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation: Barcelona, Spain 2005, 4345-4352.

20.

Zoss A, Kazerooni H: Design of an electrically actuated lower extremity exoskeleton. Advanced Robotics 2006,20(9):967-988.CrossRef

21.

Amundson K, Raade J, Harding N, Kazerooni H: Hybrid hydraulic-electric power unit for field and service robots. Proceedings of the IEEE IRS/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems: August 2–6, 2005; Alberta, Canada 2005, 3453-3458.CrossRef

22.

Guizzo E, Goldstein H: The rise of the body bots. IEEE Spectrum 2005,42(10):50-56.CrossRef

23.

Huang GT: Wearable robots. Technology Review 2004.

24.

2006 ARO in Review U.S. Army Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Research Office, Adelphi, MD; 2006.

25.

Walsh CJ, Pasch K, Herr H: An autonomous, under-actuated exoskeleton for load-carrying augmentation. Proc. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). Beijing, China 2006, 1410-1415.

26.

Walsh CJ, Paluska D, Pasch K, Grand W, Valiente A, Herr H: Development of a lightweight, underactuated exoskeleton for load-carrying augmentation. Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. 2006; Orlando, FL, USA 2006, 3485-3491.

27.

Valiente A: Design of a quasi-passive parallel leg exoskeleton to augment load carrying for walking. In Master's Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MA, USA; 2005.

28.

Walsh CJ: Biomimetic design of an underactuated leg exoskeleton for load-carrying augmentation. In Master's Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MA, USA; 2006.

29.

Walsh C, Endo K, Herr H: A quasi-passive leg exoskeleton for load-carrying augmentation. Int J HR 2007,4(3):487-506.

30.

Gregorczyk KN, Obusek JP, Hasselquist L, Schiffman JM, Bensel CK, Gutekunst D, Frykman P: The Effects of a Lower Body Exoskeleton Load Carriage Assistive Device on Oxygen Consumption and Kinematics during Walking with Loads. 25th Army Science Conference. 2006; Orlando, FL, USA, Nov. 27–30

31.

Jansen JF, Birdwell JF, Boynton AC, Crowell HP III, Durfee WK, Gongola JD, Killough SM, Leo DJ, Lind RF, Love LJ, Mungiole M, Pin FG, Richardson BS, Rowe JC, Velev OA, Zambrano T: Phase I Report: DARPA Exoskeleton Program. Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report number ORNL/TM-2003/216 2003.

32.

Marks P: Power dressing. New Sci 2001.

33.

Vukobratovic M, Hristic D, Stojiljkovic Z: Development of active anthropomorphic exoskeletons. Med Biol Eng 1974,12(1):66-80.CrossRefPubMed

34.

Vukobratovic M, Borovac B, Surla D, Stokic D: Scientific Fundamentals of Robotics 7, Biped Locomotion: Dynamics Stability, Control, and Application. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990.CrossRef

35.

Hristic D, Vukobratovic M, Timotijevic M: New model of autonomous 'active suit' for distrophic patients. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1981, 33-42.

36.

Grundmann J, Seireg A: Computer Control of Multi-Task Exoskeleton for Paraplegics. Proceedings of the Second CISM/IFTOMM International Symposium on the Theory and Practice of Robots and Manipulators 1977, 233-240.

37.

Seireg A, Grundmann JG: Design of a Multitask Exoskeletal Walking Device for Paraplegics. In Biomechanics of Medical Devices. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York; 1981:569-644.

38.

Tomovic R, Popovic D, Gracanin F: A technology for self-fitting of orthoses. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1978, 15-25.

39.

Hristic D, Vukobratovic M, Gracanin F: Development and evaluation of modular active orthosis. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1978, 137-146.

40.

Schwirtlich L, Kovacevic S, Popovic D: Clinical evaluation of the self-fitting modular orthoses by spastic paraplegics. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1981, 21-32.

41.

Jaukovic ND: Active peroneal orthosis. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1981, 13-20.

42.

Schwirtlich L, Popovic D: Hybrid orthoses for deficient locomotion. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1984, 23-32.

43.

Popovic D, Schwirtlich L: Hybrid powered orthoses. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1987, 95-104.

44.

Popovic D, Schwirtlich L, Radosavijevic S: Powered hybrid assistive system. Proceedings of the International Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities 1990, 177-186.

45.

Durfee WK, Hausdorff JM: Regulating knee joint position by combining electrical stimulation with a controllable friction brake. Ann Biomed Eng 1990, 18: 575-596.CrossRefPubMed

46.

Goldfarb M, Durfee WK: Design of a controlled brake orthosis for FES-aided gait. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1996,4(1):13-24.CrossRefPubMed

47.

Yamamoto K, Hyodo K, Ishii M, Matsuo T: Development of power assisting suit for assisting nurse labor. JSME International Journal. Series C 2002,45(3):703-711.CrossRef

48.

Yamamoto K, Ishii M, Hyodo K, Yoshimitsu T, Matsuo T: Development of power assisting suit (miniaturization of supply system to realize wearable suit). JSME International Journal Series C 2003,46(3):923-930.CrossRef

49.

Kawamoto H, Sankai Y: Power assist system HAL-3 for gait disorder person. Lecture Notes on Computer Science (LNCS), vol. 2398/2002. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers Helping People with Special Needs (ICCHP), Berlin, Germany 2002.

50.

Kawamoto H, Lee S, Kanbe S, Sankai Y: Power assist method for HAL-3 using EMG-based feedback controller. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 2003, 1648-1653.

51.

Pratt JE, Krupp BT, Morse CJ, Collins SH: The RoboKnee: an exoskeleton for enhancing strength and endurance during walking. Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New Orleans, LA, USA 2004, 2430-2435.

52.

Blaya JA, Herr H: Control of a variable-impedance ankle-foot orthosis to assist drop-foot gait. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2004,12(1):24-31.CrossRefPubMed

53.

Ferris DP, Czerniecki JM, Hannaford B: An ankle-foot orthosis powered by artificial muscles. J Appl Biomech 2005, 21: 189-197.PubMedCentralPubMed

54.

Ferris DP, Gordon KE, Sawicki GS, Peethambaran A: An improved powered ankle-foot orthosis using proportional myoelectric control. Gait Posture 2006, 23: 425-428.CrossRefPubMed

55.

Sawicki GS, Gordon KE, Ferris DP: Powered lower limb orthoses: applications in motor adaptation and rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR) 2005, 206-211.

56.

Nikitczuk J, Weinberg B, Mavroidis C: Rehabilitative knee orthosis driven by electro-rheological fluid based actuators. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation 2005, 2283-2289.CrossRef

57.

Banala SK, Agrawal SK, Fattah A, Krishnamoorthy V, Hsu W, Scholz J, Rudolph K: Gravity-balancing leg orthosis and its performance evaluation. IEEE Transactions on Robotics 2006,22(6):1228-1239.CrossRef

58.

Kong K, Jeon D: Design and control of an exoskeleton for the elderly and patients. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2006,15(3):367-378.

59.

Herr H, Langman N: Optimization of human-powered elastic mechanisms for endurance amplification. Journal of the International Society for Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization (ISSMO) 1997, 13: 65-67.CrossRef

60.

Herr H: Crutch with Elbow and Shank Springs. US Patent 5,458,143 1995.

61.

Herr H, Kornbluh R: New horizons for orthotic and prosthetic technology: artificial muscle for ambulation. In Smart Structures and Materials 2004: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD): San Diego, CA 5385(1):1-9.CrossRef

62.

Mulgaonkar A, Kornbluh R, Herr H: A new frontier for orthotics and prosthetics: application of dielectric elastomer actuators to bionics. In Dielectric Elastomers as Electromechanical Transducers: Fundamentals, Materials, Devices, Models and Applications of an Emerging Electroactive Polymer Technology. Edited by: Carpi F, De Rossi D, Kornbluh R, Pelrine R, Sommer-Larsen P. Elsevier; 2008.

63.

Endo K, Paluska D, Herr H: A quasi-passive model of human leg function in level-ground walking. Proc. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). 2006; Beijing, China 2006, 4935-4939.

64.

Geyer H, Herr H: A muscle-reflex model that encodes principles of legged mechanics predicts human walking dynamics and muscle activities. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2009, in press.

65.

Loeb GE: Neural prosthetics. In The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks. 2nd edition. Edited by: Arbib MA. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press;

66.

Truccolo W, Friehs GM, Donoghue JP, Hochberg LR: Primary motor cortex tuning to intended movement kinematics in humans with tetraplegia. J Neurosci 2008,28(5):1163-1178.CrossRefPubMed

67.

Kuiken T, Li G, Lock BA, Lipschutz RD, Miller LA, Stubblefield KA, Englehart KB: Targeted muscle reinnervation for real-time myoelectric control of multifunction artificial arms. JAMA 2009,301(6):619-628.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed

Title: Exoskeletons and orthoses: classification, design challenges and future directions
Author: Hugh Herr
Publication date: 01-12-2009
Publisher: BioMed Central
Published in: Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation / Issue 1/2009
Electronic ISSN: 1743-0003
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-6-21

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Exoskeletons and orthoses: classification, design challenges and future directions

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 1/2009

On the understanding and development of modern physical neurorehabilitation methods: robotics and non-invasive brain stimulation

Infrared thermography as an access pathway for individuals with severe motor impairments

Lower trunk motion and speed-dependence during walking

Gait quality is improved by locomotor training in individuals with SCI regardless of training approach

Changes in spatiotemporal gait variables over time during a test of functional capacity after stroke

Single-trial classification of NIRS signals during emotional induction tasks: towards a corporeal machine interface