Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ASCO Annual Meeting 2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

2024 ASCO Annual Meeting

Keep up to date with all the top stories and latest evidence with our hub page, including official congress videos and expert takeaways.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine
Published in: Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine 1/2012

Open Access 01-12-2012 | Review

Critical care management of severe traumatic brain injury in adults

Authors: Samir H Haddad, Yaseen M Arabi

Published in: Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine | Issue 1/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major medical and socio-economic problem, and is the leading cause of death in children and young adults. The critical care management of severe TBI is largely derived from the "Guidelines for the Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury" that have been published by the Brain Trauma Foundation. The main objectives are prevention and treatment of intracranial hypertension and secondary brain insults, preservation of cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), and optimization of cerebral oxygenation. In this review, the critical care management of severe TBI will be discussed with focus on monitoring, avoidance and minimization of secondary brain insults, and optimization of cerebral oxygenation and CPP.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Teasdale G, Jennett B: Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. Lancet. 1974, 2: 81-84.PubMedCrossRef
2.
Bullock R, Chestnut RM, Clifton G, Ghajar J, Marion DW, Narayan RK, et al: Guidelines for the management of severe head injury. J Neurotrauma. 1996, 13 (11): 643-734.CrossRef
3.
Bullock R, Chestnut RM, Clifton G, Ghajar J, Marion DW, Narayan RK, et al: Guidelines for the Management of Severe Traumatic Injury. J Neurotrauma. 2000, 17: 453-553.CrossRef
4.
Bullock R, et al: Guidelines for the Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma. 2007, 24 (Suppl 1): S1-S106. 3
5.
Vukic M, Negovetic L, Kovac D, Ghajar J, Glavic Z, Gopcevic A: The effect of implementation of guidelines for the management of severe head injury on patient treatment and outcome. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1999, 141 (11): 1203-8.CrossRef
6.
Hesdorffer D, Ghajar J, Iacono L: Predictors of compliance with the evidence-based guidelines for traumatic brain injury care: A survey of United States trauma centers. J Trauma. 2002, 52: 1202-1209.PubMedCrossRef
7.
Fakhry SM, Trask AL, Waller MA, Watts DD: Management of brain- injured patients by an evidence-based medicine protocol improves outcomes and decreases hospital charges. J Trauma. 2004, 56 (3): 492-499. discussion 499-500PubMedCrossRef
8.
Arabi Y, Haddad S, Tamim H, Al-Dawood A, Al-Qahtani S, Ferayan A, et al: Mortality Reduction after Implementing a Clinical Practice Guidelines-Based Management Protocol for Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. J Crit Care. 2010, 25 (2): 190-195.PubMedCrossRef
9.
Chesnut RM: Secondary brain insults after head injury: clinical perspectives. New Horiz. 1995, 3: 366-75.PubMed
10.
Unterberg AW, Stover JF, Kress B, Kiening KL: Edema and brain trauma. Neuroscience. 2004, 129: 1021-9.PubMedCrossRef
11.
Jeremitsky E, Omert L, Dunham CM, Protetch J, Rodriguez A: Harbingers of poor outcome the day after severe brain injury: hypothermia, hypoxia, and hypoperfusion. J Trauma. 2003, 54 (2): 312-319.PubMedCrossRef
12.
Abdoh MG, Bekaert O, Hodel J, Diarra SM, Le Guerinel C, Nseir R, Bastuji-Garin S, Decq P: Accuracy of external ventricular drainage catheter placement. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2011,
13.
Stiefel MF, Spiotta A, Gracias VH, Garuffe AM, Guillamondegui O, Maloney-Wilensky E, Bloom S, Grady MS, LeRoux PD: Reduced mortality rate in patients with severe traumatic brain injury treated with brain tissue oxygen monitoring. J Neurosurg. 2005, 103 (5): 805-811.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Saul TG, Ducker TB: Effect of intracranial pressure monitoring and aggressive treatment on mortality in severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1982, 56: 498-503.PubMedCrossRef
15.
Saul TG, Ducker TB: Intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with severe head injury. Am Surg. 1982, 48 (9): 477-480.PubMed
16.
Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF, et al: High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1988, 69: 15-23.PubMedCrossRef
17.
Howells T, Elf K, Jones P, et al: Pressure reactivity as a guide in the treatment of cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with brain trauma. J Neurosurg. 2005, 102: 311-317.PubMedCrossRef
18.
Aarabi B, Hesdorffer D: Outcome following decompressive craniectomy for malignant swelling due to severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 2006, 104: 469-479.PubMedCrossRef
19.
Timofeev I, Kirkpatrick P, Corteen E, et al: Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: outcome following protocol-driven therapy. Acta Neurochir (Suppl). 2006, 96: 11-16.CrossRef
20.
Bulger EM, Nathens AB, Rivara FP, Moore M, MacKenzie EJ, Jurkovich GJ: Management of severe head injury: institutional variations in care and effect on outcome. Crit Care Med. 2002, 30: 1870-1876.PubMedCrossRef
21.
Lane PL, Skoretz TG, Doig G, Girotti MJ: Intracranial pressure monitoring and outcomes after traumatic brain injury. Can J Surg. 2000, 43: 442-448.PubMedCentralPubMed
22.
Mauritz W, Steltzer H, Bauer P, Dolanski-Aghamanoukjan L, Metnitz P: Monitoring of intracranial pressure in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: an Austrian prospective multicenter study. Intensive Care Med. 2008, 34: 1208-1215.PubMedCrossRef
23.
Stocchetti N, Penny KI, Dearden M, Braakman R, Cohadon F, Iannotti F, Lapierre F, Karimi A, Maas A, Murray GD, Ohman J, Persson L, Servadei F, Teasdale GM, Trojanowski T, Unterberg A, European Brain Injury Consortium: Intensive care management of head-injured patients in Europe: a survey from the European brain injury consortium. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27: 400-406.PubMedCrossRef
24.
Cremer OL, van Dijk G, van Wensen E, et al: Effect of intracranial pressure monitoring and targeted intensive care on functional outcome after severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33: 2207-2213.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Cremer OL: Does ICP monitoring make a difference in neurocritical care?. European Journal of Anaesthesiology. 2008, 25 (Suppl 42): 87-93.CrossRef
26.
Shafi S, Diaz-Arrastia R, Madden C, Gentilello L: Intracranial pressure monitoring in brain-injured patients is associated with worsening of survival. J Trauma. 2008, 64 (2): 335-340.PubMedCrossRef
27.
Haddad S, AlDawood AS, AlFerayan A, Russell N, Tamim H, Arabi YM: Relationship between intracranial pressure monitoring and outcomes in severe traumatic brain injury patients. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2011, 39 (6): 1043-1050.PubMed
28.
Forsyth R, Wolny S, Rodrigues B: Routine intracranial pressure monitoring in acute coma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010, CD002043-2
29.
Treggiari MM, Schutz N, Yanez ND, Romand JA: Role of intracranial pressure values and patterns in predicting outcome in traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Neurocrit Care. 2007, 6 (2): 104-12.PubMedCrossRef
30.
Robertson CS, Narayan RK, Gokaslan ZL, et al: Cerebral arteriovenous oxygen difference as an estimate of cerebral blood flow in comatose patients. J Neurosurg. 1989, 70: 222-230.PubMedCrossRef
31.
Lam JM, Chan MS, Poon WS: Cerebral venous oxygen saturation monitoring: is dominant jugular bulb cannulation good enough?. Br J Neurosurg. 1996, 10: 357-364.PubMedCrossRef
32.
Cruz J: The first decade of continuous monitoring of jugular bulb oxyhemoglobin saturation: management strategies and clinical outcome. Crit Care Med. 1998, 26: 344-351.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Robertson CS, Cormio M: Cerebral metabolic management. New Horiz. 1995, 3: 410-422.PubMed
34.
Sheinberg M, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, et al: Continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1992, 76: 212-217.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Gopinath SP, Robertson CS, Contant CF, et al: Jugular venous desaturation and outcome after head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994, 57: 717-723.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
36.
Robertson CS, Gopinath SP, Goodman JC, Contant CF, Valadka AB, Narayan RK: SjvO2 monitoring in head-injured patients. J Neurotrauma. 1995, 12: 891-896.PubMedCrossRef
37.
Lewis SB, Myburgh JA, Reilly PL: Detection of cerebral venous desaturation by continuous jugular bulb oximetry following acute neurotrauma. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1995, 23: 307-314.PubMed
38.
Rosenthal G, Hemphill JC, Sorani M, Martin C, Morabito D, Obrist WD, Manley GT: Brain tissue oxygen tension is more indicative of oxygen diffusion than oxygen delivery and metabolism in patients with traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2008, 36 (6): 1917-1924.PubMedCrossRef
39.
Meixensberger J, Dings J, Kuhnigk H, Roosen K: Studies of tissue pO2 in normal and pathological human brain cortex. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1993, 59: 58-63.
40.
Stiefel MF, Spiotta A, Gracias VH, Garuffe AM, Guillamondegui O, Maloney-Wilensky E, Bloom S, Grady MS, LeRoux PD: Reduced mortality rate in patients with severe traumatic brain injury treated with brain tissue oxygen monitoring. J Neurosurg. 2005, 103: 805-811.PubMedCrossRef
41.
Narotam PK, Morrison JF, Nathoo N: Brain tissue oxygen monitoring in traumatic brain injury and major trauma: outcome analysis of a brain tissue oxygen-directed therapy. J Neurosurg. 2009, 111 (4): 672-682.PubMedCrossRef
42.
Spiotta AM, Stiefel MF, Gracias VH, Garuffe AM, Kofke WA, Maloney-Wilensky E, Troxel AB, Levine JM, Le Roux PD: Brain tissue oxygen-directed management and outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2010, 113 (3): 571-580.PubMedCrossRef
43.
Nangunoori R, Maloney-Wilensky E, Stiefel M, Park S, Andrew Kofke W, Levine JM, Yang W, Le Roux PD: Brain Tissue Oxygen-Based Therapy and Outcome After Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Literature Review. Neurocrit Care. 2011,
44.
Oddo M, Levine JM, Mackenzie L, Frangos S, Feihl F, Kasner SE, Katsnelson M, Pukenas B, Macmurtrie E, Maloney-Wilensky E, Kofke WA, LeRoux PD: Brain hypoxia is associated with short-term outcome after severe traumatic brain injury independently of intracranial hypertension and low cerebral perfusion pressure. Neurosurgery. 2011, 69 (5): 1037-45. discussion 1045PubMed
45.
Bhatia A, Gupta AK: Neuromonitoring in the intensive care unit. II. Cerebral oxygenation monitoring and microdialysis. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33 (8): 1322-1328.PubMedCrossRef
46.
Leal-Noval SR, Cayuela A, Arellano-Orden V, Marín-Caballos A, Padilla V, Ferrándiz-Millón C, Corcia Y, García-Alfaro C, Amaya-Villar R, Murillo-Cabezas F: Invasive and noninvasive assessment of cerebral oxygenation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36 (8): 1309-1317.PubMedCrossRef
47.
Tisdall MM, Smith M: Cerebral microdialysis: research technique or clinical tool. Br J Anaesth. 2006, 97: 18-25.PubMedCrossRef
48.
Stahl N, Mellergard P, Hallstrom A, Ungerstedt U, Nordstrom CH: ntracerebral microdialysis and bedside biochemical analysis in patients with fatal traumatic brain lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2001, 45: 977-985.PubMedCrossRef
49.
Zauner A, Doppenberg E, Woodward JJ, Choi SC, Young HF, Bullock R: Continuous monitoring of cerebral substrate delivery and clearance: initial experience in 24 patients with severe acute brain injuries. Neurosurgery. 1997, 41: 1082-1091.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Ragauskas A, Daubaris G, Dziugys A, et al: Innovative non-invasive method for absolute intracranial pressure measurement without calibration. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005, 95: 357-361.PubMedCrossRef
51.
Bellner J, Romner B, Reinstrup P, et al: Transcranial Doppler sonography pulsatility index (PI) reflects intracranial pressure (ICP). Surg Neurol. 2004, 62: 45-51.PubMedCrossRef
52.
de Freitas GR, Andre C: Sensitivity of transcranial Doppler for confirming brain death: A prospective study of 270 cases. Acta Neurol Scand. 2006, 113: 426-432.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Dosemeci L, Dora B, Yilmaz M, et al: Utility of transcranial Doppler ultrasonography for confirmatory diagnosis of brain death: Two sides of the coin. Transplantation. 2004, 77: 71-75.PubMedCrossRef
54.
Sloan TB: Electrophysiologic monitoring in head injury. New Horiz. 1995, 3: 431-438.PubMed
55.
Gutling E, Gonser A, Imhof HG, et al: EEG reactivity in the prognosis of severe head injury. Neurology. 1995, 45: 915-918.PubMedCrossRef
56.
Lewis SB, Myburgh JA, Thornton EL, Reilly PL: Cerebral oxygenation monitoring by near-infrared spectroscopy is not clinically useful in patients with severe closed-head injury: A comparison with jugular venous bulb oximetry. Crit Care Med. 1996, 24: 1334-1338.PubMedCrossRef
57.
Stewart C, Haitsma I, Zador Z, Morabito D, Manley G, Rosenthal G, Hemphill JC: The New Licox Combined Brain Tissue Oxygen and Brain Temperature Monitor: Assessment of in Vitro Accuracy and Clinical Experience in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurosurgery. 2008, 63 (6): 1159-1165.PubMedCrossRef
58.
Zeiner A, Klewer J, Sterz F, Haugk M, Krizanac D, Testori C, Losert H, Ayati S, Holzer M: Non-invasive continuous cerebral temperature monitoring in patients treated with mild therapeutic hypothermia: an observational pilot study. Resuscitation. 2010, 81 (7): 861-866.PubMedCrossRef
59.
Coles JP, Minhas PS, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Aigbirihio F, Donovan T, Downey SP, Williams G, Chatfield D, Matthews JC, Gupta AK, Carpenter TA, Clark JC, Pickard JD, Menon DK: Effect of hyperventilation on cerebral blood flow in traumatic head injury: clinical relevance and monitoring correlates. Crit Care Med. 2002, 30 (9): 1950-1959.PubMedCrossRef
60.
Mascia L, Zavala E, Bosma K, Pasero D, Decaroli D, Andrews P, Isnardi D, Davi A, Arguis MJ, Berardino M, Ducati A, Brain IT group: High tidal volume is associated with the development of acute lung injury after severe brain injury: an international observational study. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35 (8): 1815-1820.PubMedCrossRef
61.
Mascia L, Grasso S, Fiore T, Bruno F, Berardino M, Ducati A: Cerebro-pulmonary interactions during the application of low levels of positive end-expiratory pressure. Intensive Care Med. 2005, 31 (3): 373-379.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Holland MC, Mackersie RC, Morabito D, et al: The development of acute lung injury is associated with worse neurologic outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2003, 55: 106-111.PubMedCrossRef
63.
Contant CF, Valadka AB, Gopinath SP, et al: Adult respiratory distress syndrome: A complication of induced hypertension after severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 2001, 95: 560-568.PubMedCrossRef
64.
Bratton SL, Davis RL: Acute lung injury in isolated traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 1997, 40: 707-712.PubMedCrossRef
65.
Mascia L, Zavala E, Bosma K, Pasero D, Decaroli D, Andrews P, Isnardi D, Davi A, Arguis MJ, Berardino M, Ducati A, on behalf of the Brain IT group: High Tidal Volume is Associated With the Development of Acute Lung Injury After Severe Brain Injury: An International Observational Study. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 1815-1820.PubMedCrossRef
66.
Gajic O, Dara SI, Mendez JL, et al: Ventilator-associated lung injury in patients without acute lung injury at the onset of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 1817-1824.PubMedCrossRef
67.
Chesnut RM, Marshall SB, Piek J, Blunt BA, Klauber MR, Marshall LF: Early and late systemic hypotension as a frequent and fundamental source of cerebral ischemia following severe brain injury in the Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1993, 59: 121-125.
68.
Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, Blunt BA, Baldwin N, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA, Marmarou A, Foulkes MA: The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma. 1993, 34: 216-222.PubMedCrossRef
69.
Manley G, Knudson MM, Morabito D, Damron S, Erickson V, Pitts L: Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg. 2001, 136: 1118-1123.PubMedCrossRef
70.
Marmarou A, Ward JD, Young HF, et al: Impact of ICP instability and hypotension on outcome in patients with severe head trauma. J Neurosurg. 1991, 75 (Suppl): S59-S66.
71.
Pietropaoli JA, Rogers FB, Shackford SR, Wald SL, Schmoker JD, Zhuang J: The deleterious effects of intraoperative hypotension on outcome in patients with severe head injuries. J Trauma. 1992, 33 (3): 403-407.PubMedCrossRef
72.
Schulz-Stübner S: Sedation in traumatic brain injury: avoid etomidate. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33 (11): 2723-PubMedCrossRef
73.
Strandvik GF: Hypertonic saline in critical care: a review of the literature and guidelines for use in hypotensive states and raised intracranial pressure. Anaesthesia. 2009, 64 (9): 990-1003.PubMedCrossRef
74.
75.
Schöchl H, Solomon C, Traintinger S, Nienaber U, Tacacs-Tolnai A, Windhofer C, Bahrami S, Voelckel W: Thromboelastometric (ROTEM) findings in patients suffering from isolated severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2011, 28 (10): 2033-2041.PubMedCrossRef
76.
Ract C, Vigue B: Comparison of the cerebral effects of dopamine and norepinephrine in severe head injury patients. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27: 101-106.PubMedCrossRef
77.
Steiner LA, Andrew J, Czosnyka M, Chatfield DA, Salvador R, Coles JP, Gupta AK, Pickard JD, Menon DK: Direct comparison of cerebrovascular effects of norepinephrine and dopamine in head-injured patients. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 1049-1054.PubMedCrossRef
78.
Sookplung P, Siriussawakul A, Malakouti A, Sharma D, Wang J, Souter MJ, Chesnut RM, Vavilala MS: Vasopressor use and effect on blood pressure after severe adult traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2011, 15 (1): 46-54.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
79.
Jaeger M, Dengl M, Meixensberger J, Schuhmann MU: Effects of cerebrovascular pressure reactivity-guided optimization of cerebral perfusion pressure on brain tissue oxygenation after traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2010, 38 (5): 1343-1347.PubMed
80.
Muizelaar JP, Lutz HA, Becker DP: Effect of mannitol on ICP and CBF and correlation with pressure autoregulation in severely head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1984, 61: 700-706.PubMedCrossRef
81.
Manninen PH, Lam AM, Gelb AW, Brown SC: The effect of high dose mannitol on serum and urine electrolytes and osmolality in neurosurgical patients. Can J Anaesth. 1987, 34: 442-446.PubMedCrossRef
82.
Marshall LF, Smith RW, Rauscher LA, Shapiro HM: Mannitol dose requirements in brain-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1978, 48: 169-172.PubMedCrossRef
83.
Wise BL, Perkins RK, Stevenson E, Scott KG: Penetration of C14-labelled mannitol from serum into cerebrospinal fluid and brain. Exp Neurol. 1964, 10: 264-270.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Peterson B, Khanna S, Fisher B, Marshall L: Prolonged hypernatremia controls elevated intracranial pressure in head-injured pediatric patients. Crit Care Med. 2000, 28: 1136-1143.PubMedCrossRef
85.
Qureshi AI, Suarez JI, Bhardwaj A, et al: Use of hypertonic (3%) saline/acetate infusion in the treatment of cerebral edema: effect on intracranial pressure and lateral displacement of the brain. Crit Care Med. 1998, 26: 440-446.PubMedCrossRef
86.
Kamel H, Navi BB, Nakagawa K, Hemphill JC, Ko NU: Hypertonic saline versus mannitol for the treatment of elevated intracranial pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Crit Care Med. 2011, 39 (3): 554-559.PubMedCrossRef
87.
Shiozaki T, Sugimoto H, Taneda M, et al: Effect of mild hypothermia on uncontrollable intracranial hypertension after severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1993, 79: 363-368.PubMedCrossRef
88.
Marion DW, Penrod LE, Kelsey SF, et al: Treatment of traumatic brain injury with moderate hypothermia. New Engl J Med. 1997, 336: 540-546.PubMedCrossRef
89.
Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC, et al: Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. New Engl J Med. 2001, 344: 556-563.PubMedCrossRef
90.
Clifton GL, Valadka A, Zygun D, Coffey CS, Drever P, Fourwinds S, Janis LS, Wilde E, Taylor P, Harshman K, Conley A, Puccio A, Levin HS, McCauley SR, Bucholz RD, Smith KR, Schmidt JH, Scott JN, Yonas H, Okonkwo DO: Very early hypothermia induction in patients with severe brain injury (the National Acute Brain Injury Study: Hypothermia II): a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2011, 10: 131-139.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
91.
Yablon SA: Post-traumatic seizures. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993, 74: 983-1001.PubMed
92.
Temkin NR: Risk factors for posttraumatic seizures in adults. Epilepsia. 2003, 44 (Suppl 10): 18-20.PubMedCrossRef
93.
Kaufman HH, Satterwhite T, McConnell BJ, et al: Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in head-injured patients. Angiology. 1983, 34: 627-638.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Norwood SH, McAuley CE, Berne JD, et al: Prospective evaluation of the safety of enoxaparin prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in patients with intracranial hemorrhagic injuries. Arch Surg. 2002, 137: 696-70.PubMedCrossRef
95.
Devlin JW, Claire KS, Dulchavsky SA, Tyburski JG: Impact of trauma stress ulcer prophylaxis guidelines on drug cost andfrequency of major gastrointestinal bleeding. Pharmacotherapy. 1999, 19: 452-460.PubMedCrossRef
96.
Pharmacists ASoHs: ASHP Therapeutic Guidelines on Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis. ASHP Commission on Therapeutics and approved by the ASHP Board of Directors on November 14, 1998. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 1999, 56: 347-379.
97.
Rapp RP, Young B, Twyman D, et al: The favorable effect of early parenteral feeding on survival in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1983, 58: 906-912.PubMedCrossRef
98.
Heyland DK, Mac Donald S, Keefe L, et al: Total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patient: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 1998, 280: 2013-2019.PubMedCrossRef
99.
Krishnan JA, Parce PB, Martinez A, Diette GB, Brower RG: Caloric intake in medical ICU patients: consistency of care with guidelines and relationship to clinical outcomes. Chest. 2003, 124 (1): 297-305.PubMedCrossRef
100.
Dickerson RN, Boschert KJ, Kudsk KA, Brown RO: Hypocaloric enteral tube feeding in critically ill obese patients. Nutrition. 2002, 18 (3): 241-246.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Ibrahim EH, Mehringer L, Prentice D, Sherman G, Schaiff R, Fraser V, Kollef MH: Early versus late enteral feeding of mechanically ventilated patients: results of a clinical trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002, 26 (3): 174-181.PubMedCrossRef
102.
Stapleton RD, Jones N, Heyland DK: Feeding critically ill patients: what is the optimal amount of energy?. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35 (9 Suppl): S535-540.PubMedCrossRef
103.
Lam AM, Winn HR, Cullen BF, et al: Hyperglycemia and neurological outcome in patients with head injury. J Neurosurg. 1991, 75: 545-551.PubMedCrossRef
104.
Young B, Ott L, Dempsey R, et al: Relationship between admission hyperglycemia and neurologic outcome of severely brain-injured patients. Ann Surg. 1989, 210: 466-473.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
105.
Rovlias A, Kotsou S: The influence of hyperglycemia on neurological outcome in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery. 2000, 46: 335-342.PubMedCrossRef
106.
Cochran A, Scaife ER, Hansen KW, Downey EC: Hyperglycemia and outcomes from pediatric traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2003, 55: 1035-1038.PubMedCrossRef
107.
Jeremitsky E, Omert LA, Dunham CM, Wilberger J, Rodriguez A: The impact of hyperglycemia on patients with severe brain injury. J Trauma. 2005, 58 (1): 47-50.PubMedCrossRef
108.
Salim A, Hadjizacharia P, Dubose J, Brown C, Inaba K, Chan LS, Margulies D: Persistent hyperglycemia in severe traumatic brain injury: an independent predictor of outcome. Am Surg. 2009, 75: 25-29.PubMed
109.
Meier R, Béchir M, Ludwig S, Sommerfeld J, Keel M, Steiger P, Stocker R, Stover JF: Differential temporal profile of lowered blood glucose levels (3.5 to 6.5 mmol/l versus 5 to 8 mmol/l) in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care. 2008, 12: R98-PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
110.
Vespa P, Boonyaputthikul R, McArthur DL, Miller C, Etchepare M, Bergsneider M, Glenn T, Martin N, Hovda D: Intensive insulin therapy reduces microdialysis glucose values without altering glucose utilization or improving the lactate/pyruvate ratio after traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34 (3): 850-856.PubMedCrossRef
111.
Oddo M, Schmidt JM, Carrera E, Badjatia N, Connolly ES, Presciutti M, Ostapkovich ND, Levine JM, Le Roux P, Mayer SA: Impact of tight glycemic control on cerebral glucose metabolism after severe brain injury: a microdialysis study. Crit Care Med. 2008, 36 (12): 3233-3238.PubMedCrossRef
112.
Zafar SN, Iqbal A, Farez MF, Kamatkar S, de Moya MA: Intensive insulin therapy in brain injury: a meta-analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2011, 28 (7): 1307-1317.PubMedCrossRef
113.
Marion DW: Optimum serum glucose levels for patients with severe traumatic brain injury. F 1000 Med Rep. 2009, 1: 42-
114.
Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, Farrell B, Wasserberg J, Lomas G, Cottingham R, Svoboda P, Brayley N, Mazairac G, Laloë V, Muñoz-Sánchez A, Arango M, Hartzenberg B, Khamis H, Yutthakasemsunt S, Komolafe E, Olldashi F, Yadav Y, Murillo-Cabezas F, Shakur H, Edwards P, CRASH trial collaborators: Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004, 364: 1321-1328.PubMedCrossRef
115.
Kassell NF, Hitchon PW, Gerk MK, Sokoll MD, Hill TR: Alterations in cerebral blood flow, oxygen metabolism, and electrical activity produced by high dose sodium thiopental. Neurosurgery. 1980, 7: 598-603.PubMedCrossRef
116.
Stover JF, Stocker R: Barbiturate coma may promote reversible bone marrow suppression in patients with severe isolated traumatic brain injury. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1998, 54: 529-534.PubMedCrossRef
117.
Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC, Levin HS: Fluid thresholds and outcome from severe brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2002, 30: 739-745.PubMedCrossRef
118.
Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R: A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350: 2247-2256.PubMedCrossRef
119.
Kerwin AJ, Schinco MA, Tepas JJ, Renfro WH, Vitarbo EA, Muehlberger M: The use of 23.4% hypertonic saline for the management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. J Trauma. 2009, 67: 277-282.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Froelich M, Ni Q, Wess C, Ougorets I, Härtl R: Continuous hypertonic saline therapy and the occurrence of complications in neurocritically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37 (4): 1433-1441.PubMedCrossRef
121.
122.
Helms O, Freys G, Pottecher T: Severe hypophosphatemia and grave head injury. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2002, 21: 525-529.PubMedCrossRef
123.
Polderman KH, Bloemers FW, Peerdeman SM, et al: Hypomagnesemia and hypophosphatemia at admission in patients with severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 2000, 28: 2022-2025.PubMedCrossRef
124.
Eker C, Asgeirsson B, Grände PO, Schalén W, Nordström CH: Improved outcome after severe head injury with a new therapy based principles for brain volume regulation and improved microcirculation. Critical Care Medicine. 1998, 26: 1881-1886.PubMedCrossRef
125.
Ng I, Lim J, Wong HB: Effects of head posture on cerebral hemodynamics: its influences on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral oxygenation. Neurosurgery. 2004, 54 (3): 593-597. discussion 598PubMedCrossRef
126.
Ledwith MB, Bloom S, Maloney-Wilensky E, Coyle B, Polomano RC, Le Roux PD: Effect of body position on cerebral oxygenation and physiologic parameters in patients with acute neurological conditions. J Neurosci Nurs. 2010, 42 (5): 280-287.PubMedCrossRef
127.
Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R: CDC; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for preventing health care-associated pneumonia 2003: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004, 53 (RR-3): 1-36.PubMed
128.
O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, Dellinger EP, Garland J, Heard SO, Maki DG, et al: Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections, 2011. Clin Infect Dis. 2011, 52: 1087-1099.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
129.
Albanèse J, Leone M, Alliez JR, Kaya JM, Antonini F, Alliez B, Martin C: Decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: Evaluation of the effects at one year. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31 (10): 2535-2538.PubMedCrossRef
130.
Cooper J, Rosenfeld J, Murray L, Arabi Y, Davies A, D'Urso P, Kossmann T, Ponsford J, Seppelt I, Reilly P, Wolfe R, for the DECRA Trial Investigators and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group: Decompressive Craniectomy in Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury. N Engl J Med. 2011, 364: 1493-1502.PubMedCrossRef
131.
Hukkelhoven CW, Steyerberg EW, Habbema JD, Farace E, Marmarou A, Murray GD, Marshall LF, Maas AI: Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: development and validation of a prognostic score based on admission characteristics. J Neurotrauma. 2005, 22 (10): 1025-1039.PubMedCrossRef
132.
Tasaki O, Shiozaki T, Hamasaki T, Kajino K, Nakae H, Tanaka H, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H: Prognostic indicators and outcome prediction model for severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2009, 66 (2): 304-308.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Critical care management of severe traumatic brain injury in adults
Authors
Samir H Haddad
Yaseen M Arabi
Publication date
01-12-2012
Publisher
BioMed Central
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-7241-20-12

Other articles of this Issue 1/2012

Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine 1/2012 Go to the issue

Review

Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome in the injured patient

Original research

The effectiveness of ultrasonography in verifying the placement of a nasogastric tube in patients with low consciousness at an emergency center

Original research

A one-year observational study of all hospitalized acute poisonings in Oslo: complications, treatment and sequelae

Commentary

The shootings in Oslo and Utøya island July 22, 2011: Lessons for the International EMS community

Original research

The development of simple survival prediction models for blunt trauma victims treated at Asian emergency centers

Original research

Performance indicators for initial regional medical response to major incidents: a possible quality control tool