Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress 2023 EHA Congress 2023 ASCO Annual Meeting
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Drugs

23-04-2024 | COVID-19 Vaccination | Review Article

Current Progress, Challenges and Prospects in the Development of COVID-19 Vaccines

Authors: Congrui Zhu, Shengmei Pang, Jiaqi Liu, Qiangde Duan

Published in: Drugs

Login to get access

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in over 772 million confirmed cases, including nearly 7 million deaths, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Leveraging rapid development, accelerated vaccine approval processes, and large-scale production of various COVID-19 vaccines using different technical platforms, the WHO declared an end to the global health emergency of COVID-19 on May 5, 2023. Current COVID-19 vaccines encompass inactivated, live attenuated, viral vector, protein subunit, nucleic acid (DNA and RNA), and virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines. However, the efficacy of these vaccines is diminishing due to the constant mutation of SARS-CoV-2 and the heightened immune evasion abilities of emerging variants. This review examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the biological characteristics of the virus, and its diverse variants. Moreover, the review underscores the effectiveness, advantages, and disadvantages of authorized COVID-19 vaccines. Additionally, it analyzes the challenges, strategies, and future prospects of developing a safe, broad-spectrum vaccine that confers sufficient and sustainable immune protection against new variants of SARS-CoV-2. These discussions not only offer insight for the development of next-generation COVID-19 vaccines but also summarize experiences for combating future emerging viruses.

Graphical Abstract

This review focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of various vaccine platforms against rapidly mutating SARS-CoV-2 variants, discusses the challenges of current vaccine research, and provides strategies for next-generation COVID-19 vaccine development.
Literature
1.
Li Q, Guan XH, Wu P, Wang XY, Zhou L, Tong YQ, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1199–207.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
2.
Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2021;19(3):141–54.PubMedCrossRef
3.
4.
5.
Li QQ, Nie JH, Wu JJ, Zhang L, Ding RX, Wang HX, et al. SARS-CoV-2 501Y.V2 variants lack higher infectivity but do have immune escape. Cell. 2021;184(9):2362–71.
6.
Pulliam JRC, van Schalkwyk C, Govender N, von Gottberg A, Cohen C, Groome MJ, et al. Increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection associated with emergence of Omicron in South Africa. Science. 2022;376(6593):596–603.CrossRef
7.
Cui Z, Liu P, Wang N, Wang L, Fan KY, Zhu QH, et al. Structural and functional characterizations of infectivity and immune evasion of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron. Cell. 2022;185(5):860–71.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
8.
Tallei TE, Alhumaid S, AlMusa Z, Fatimawali, Kusumawaty D, Alynbiawi A, et al. Update on the omicron sub-variants BA.4 and BA.5. Rev Med Virol. 2023;33(1):e2391.
9.
Xie Y, Choi T, Al-Aly Z. Risk of death in patients hospitalized for COVID-19 vs seasonal influenza in fall-winter 2022–2023. JAMA. 2023;329(19):1697–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
10.
11.
Sarker R, Roknuzzaman ASM, Hossain MJ, Bhuiyan MA, Islam MR. The WHO declares COVID-19 is no longer a public health emergency of international concern: benefits, challenges, and necessary precautions to come back to normal life. Int J Surg. 2023;109(9):2851–2.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
12.
Chen Y, Cheng L, Lian R, Song Z, Tian J. COVID-19 vaccine research focusses on safety, efficacy, immunoinformatics, and vaccine production and delivery: a bibliometric analysis based on VOSviewer. Biosci Trends. 2021;15(2):64–73.PubMedCrossRef
13.
Talic S, Shah S, Wild H, Gasevic D, Maharaj A, Ademi Z, et al. Effectiveness of public health measures in reducing the incidence of covid-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Br Med J. 2021;375:e068302.
14.
15.
Hotez PJ. COVID-19 vaccines: the imperfect instruments of vaccine diplomacy. J Travel Med. 2022;29(8):taac063.
16.
Li MC, Wang H, Tian LL, Pang ZH, Yang QK, Huang TQ, et al. COVID-19 vaccine development: milestones, lessons and prospects. Signal Transduct Tar. 2022;7(1):146–77.
17.
18.
Yilmaz IC, Ipekoglu EM, Bulbul A, Turay N, Yildirim M, Evcili I, et al. Development and preclinical evaluation of virus-like particle vaccine against COVID-19 infection. Allergy. 2022;77(1):258–70.PubMedCrossRef
19.
20.
Goel RR, Painter MM, Apostolidis SA, Mathew D, Meng WZ, Rosenfeld AM, et al. mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern. Science. 2021;374(6572):1214–30.CrossRef
21.
Barouch DH. Covid-19 vaccines—immunity, variants, boosters. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(11):1011–20.PubMedCrossRef
22.
Lipsitch M, Krammer F, Regev-Yochay G, Lustig Y, Balicer RD. SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections in vaccinated individuals: measurement, causes and impact. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022;22(1):57–65.PubMedCrossRef
23.
Finazzi S, Perego M, Tricella G, Poole D, Ranieri VM, Evaluat GIG. SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections in vaccinated individuals requiring ventilatory support for severe acute respiratory failure. Intensive Care Med. 2023;49(2):248–50.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
24.
25.
Xu K, Wang Z, Qin M, Gao Y, Luo N, Xie W, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness and safety of COVID-19 vaccination in older adults. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1113156.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
26.
Mittal A, Khattri A, Verma V. Structural and antigenic variations in the spike protein of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. PLoS Pathog. 2022;18(2): e1010260.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
27.
Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(19):1814–20.PubMedCrossRef
28.
Xu JB, Zhao SZ, Teng TS, Abdalla AE, Zhu W, Xie LX, et al. Systematic comparison of two animal-to-human transmitted human coronaviruses: SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Viruses Basel. 2020;12(2):244–60.
29.
Kesheh MM, Hosseini P, Soltani S, Zandi M. An overview on the seven pathogenic human coronaviruses. Rev Med Virol. 2022;32(2):e2282.
30.
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):565–74.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
31.
32.
Wang C, Liu Z, Chen Z, Huang X, Xu M, He T, et al. The establishment of reference sequence for SARS-CoV-2 and variation analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):667–74.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
33.
Wu A, Peng Y, Huang B, Ding X, Wang X, Niu P, et al. Genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(3):325–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
34.
Rohaim MA, El Naggar RF, Clayton E, Munir M. Structural and functional insights into non-structural proteins of coronaviruses. Microb Pathog. 2021;150: 104641.PubMedCrossRef
35.
36.
Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh CL, Abiona O, et al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020;367(6483):1260–3.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
37.
38.
Baggen J, Jacquemyn M, Persoons L, Vanstreels E, Pye VE, Wrobel AG, et al. TMEM106B is a receptor mediating ACE2-independent SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. Cell. 2023;186(16):3427-42 e22.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
39.
Jackson CB, Farzan M, Chen B, Choe H. Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2022;23(1):3–20.PubMedCrossRef
40.
41.
Kakavandi S, Zare I, VaezJalali M, Dadashi M, Azarian M, Akbari A, et al. Structural and non-structural proteins in SARS-CoV-2: potential aspects to COVID-19 treatment or prevention of progression of related diseases. Cell Commun Signal. 2023;21(1):110–40.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
42.
43.
Aleem A, Akbar Samad AB, Vaqar S. Emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 and novel therapeutics against coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls. Treasure Island, StatPearls Publishing. 2024.
44.
Carabelli AM, Peacock TP, Thorne LG, Harvey WT, Hughes J, Consortium C-GU, et al. SARS-CoV-2 variant biology: immune escape, transmission and fitness. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21(3):162–77.
45.
Liu Y, Liu J, Johnson BA, Xia H, Ku Z, Schindewolf C, et al. Delta spike P681R mutation enhances SARS-CoV-2 fitness over Alpha variant. Cell Rep. 2022;39(7):110829.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
46.
Cao Y, Yisimayi A, Jian F, Song W, Xiao T, Wang L, et al. BA.2.12.1, BA.4 and BA.5 escape antibodies elicited by Omicron infection. Nature. 2022;608(7923):593–602.
47.
Cele S, Jackson L, Khoury DS, Khan K, Moyo-Gwete T, Tegally H, et al. Omicron extensively but incompletely escapes Pfizer BNT162b2 neutralization. Nature. 2022;602(7898):654–6.PubMedCrossRef
48.
Iketani S, Liu L, Guo Y, Liu L, Chan JF, Huang Y, et al. Antibody evasion properties of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineages. Nature. 2022;604(7906):553–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
49.
Viana R, Moyo S, Amoako DG, Tegally H, Scheepers C, Althaus CL, et al. Rapid epidemic expansion of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in southern Africa. Nature. 2022;603(7902):679–86.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
50.
Yu J, Collier AY, Rowe M, Mardas F, Ventura JD, Wan H, et al. Neutralization of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron BA.1 and BA.2 variants. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(16):1579–80.
51.
Accorsi EK, Britton A, Fleming-Dutra KE, Smith ZR, Shang N, Derado G, et al. Association between 3 doses of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine and symptomatic infection caused by the SARS-CoV-2 omicron and delta variants. JAMA. 2022;327(7):639–51.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
52.
Andrews N, Stowe J, Kirsebom F, Toffa S, Rickeard T, Gallagher E, et al. Covid-19 vaccine effectiveness against the omicron (B.1.1.529) variant. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(16):1532–46.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Tanriover MD, Doganay HL, Akova M, Guner HR, Azap A, Akhan S, et al. Efficacy and safety of an inactivated whole-virion SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (CoronaVac): interim results of a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial in Turkey. Lancet. 2021;398(10296):213–22.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
54.
Lounis M, Rais MA, Bencherit D, Aouissi HA, Oudjedi A, Klugarova J, et al. Side effects of COVID-19 inactivated virus vs. adenoviral vector vaccines: experience of Algerian healthcare workers. Front Public Health. 2022;10:896343.
55.
Grana C, Ghosn L, Evrenoglou T, Jarde A, Minozzi S, Bergman H, et al. Efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022;12(12):CD015477.
56.
57.
Li Y, Tenchov R, Smoot J, Liu C, Watkins S, Zhou Q. A comprehensive review of the global efforts on COVID-19 vaccine development. ACS Cent Sci. 2021;7(4):512–33.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
58.
Kan AKC, Li PH. Inactivated COVID-19 vaccines: potential concerns of antibody-dependent enhancement and original antigenic sin. Immunol Lett. 2023;259:21–3.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
59.
Zheng C, Shao W, Chen X, Zhang B, Wang G, Zhang W. Real-world effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines: a literature review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2022;114:252–60.PubMedCrossRef
60.
61.
Shay DK, Shimabukuro TT, DeStefano F. Myocarditis occurring after immunization with mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. JAMA Cardiol. 2021;6(10):1115–7.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Alami A, Krewski D, Mattison D, Wilson K, Gravel CA, Villeneuve PJ, et al. Risk of myocarditis and pericarditis among young adults following mRNA COVID-19 vaccinations. Vaccines. 2022;10(5):722–30.
63.
Goddard K, Lewis N, Fireman B, Weintraub E, Shimabukuro T, Zerbo O, et al. Risk of myocarditis and pericarditis following BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccination. Vaccine. 2022;40(35):5153–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
64.
65.
Pascolo S. Vaccines against COVID-19: priority to mRNA-based formulations. Cells. 2021;10(10):2716–26.
66.
Gupta SK, Carmi S, Ben-Asher HW, Tkacz ID, Naboishchikov I, Michaeli S. Basal splicing factors regulate the stability of mature mRNAs in trypanosomes. J Biol Chem. 2013;288(7):4991–5006.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
67.
Ramachandran S, Satapathy SR, Dutta T. Delivery strategies for mRNA vaccines. Pharm Med. 2022;36(1):11–20.CrossRef
68.
Folegatti PM, Ewer KJ, Aley PK, Angus B, Becker S, Belij-Rammerstorfer S, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020;396(10249):467–78.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
69.
70.
Lin DY, Gu Y, Wheeler B, Young H, Holloway S, Sunny SK, et al. Effectiveness of Covid-19 vaccines over a 9-month period in North Carolina. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(10):933–41.PubMedCrossRef
71.
Rosenberg ES, Dorabawila V, Easton D, Bauer UE, Kumar J, Hoen R, et al. Covid-19 vaccine effectiveness in New York State. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(2):116–27.PubMedCrossRef
72.
Cines DB, Bussel JB. SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(23):2254–6.PubMedCrossRef
73.
Sadoff J, Gray G, Vandebosch A, Cardenas V, Shukarev G, Grinsztejn B, et al. Final analysis of efficacy and safety of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(9):847–60.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Reimann P, Ulmer H, Mutschlechner B, Benda M, Severgnini L, Volgger A, et al. Efficacy and safety of heterologous booster vaccination with Ad26.COV2.S after BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in haemato-oncological patients with no antibody response. Br J Haematol. 2022;196(3):577–84.PubMedCrossRef
75.
Zhu FC, Li YH, Guan XH, Hou LH, Wang WJ, Li JX, et al. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of a recombinant adenovirus type-5 vectored COVID-19 vaccine: a dose-escalation, open-label, non-randomised, first-in-human trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10240):1845–54.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
76.
Yu B, Zhou Y, Wu H, Wang Z, Zhan Y, Feng X, et al. Seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies to human adenovirus type 5 in healthy adults in China. J Med Virol. 2012;84(9):1408–14.PubMedCrossRef
77.
Lai CY, To A, Ann SWT, Lieberman MM, Clements DE, Senda JT, et al. Recombinant protein subunit SARS-CoV-2 vaccines formulated with CoVaccine HT adjuvant induce broad, Th1 biased, humoral and cellular immune responses in mice. Vaccine X. 2021;9:100126.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
78.
Pitcovski J, Gruzdev N, Abzach A, Katz C, Ben-Adiva R, Brand-Shwartz M, et al. Oral subunit SARS-CoV-2 vaccine induces systemic neutralizing IgG, IgA and cellular immune responses and can boost neutralizing antibody responses primed by an injected vaccine. Vaccine. 2022;40(8):1098–107.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
79.
80.
Cai Y, Zhang J, Xiao T, Peng H, Sterling SM, Walsh RM Jr, et al. Distinct conformational states of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Science. 2020;369(6511):1586–92.PubMedCrossRef
81.
Juraszek J, Rutten L, Blokland S, Bouchier P, Voorzaat R, Ritschel T, et al. Stabilizing the closed SARS-CoV-2 spike trimer. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):244–51.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
82.
Schaub JM, Chou CW, Kuo HC, Javanmardi K, Hsieh CL, Goldsmith J, et al. Expression and characterization of SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins. Nat Protoc. 2021;16(11):5339–56.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
83.
Lehto M, Alanen A. Healing of a muscle trauma. Correlation of sonographical and histological findings in an experimental study in rats. J Ultrasound Med. 1987;6(8):425–9.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Ella R, Reddy S, Blackwelder W, Potdar V, Yadav P, Sarangi V, et al. Efficacy, safety, and lot-to-lot immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (BBV152): interim results of a randomised, double-blind, controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10317):2173–84.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
85.
Al Kaabi N, Zhang Y, Xia S, Yang Y, Al Qahtani MM, Abdulrazzaq N, et al. Effect of 2 inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines on symptomatic COVID-19 infection in adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;326(1):35–45.PubMedCrossRef
86.
Ranzani OT, Hitchings MDT, de Melo RL, de Franca GVA, Fernandes CFR, Lind ML, et al. Effectiveness of an inactivated Covid-19 vaccine with homologous and heterologous boosters against Omicron in Brazil. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):5536–45.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
87.
Wang X, Zhao X, Song J, Wu J, Zhu Y, Li M, et al. Homologous or heterologous booster of inactivated vaccine reduces SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant escape from neutralizing antibodies. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2022;11(1):477–81.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
88.
Zhang F, Zhu Y, He Z, Lan X, Song M, Chen X, et al. Uptake of heterologous or homologous COVID-19 booster dose and related adverse events among diabetic patients: a multicenter cross-sectional study—China, 2022. China CDC Wkly. 2023;5(1):5–10.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
89.
90.
Chen J, Chen J, Xu Q. Current developments and challenges of mRNA vaccines. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2022;6(24):85–109.CrossRef
91.
92.
Goddard K, Hanson KE, Lewis N, Weintraub E, Fireman B, Klein NP. Incidence of myocarditis/pericarditis following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination among children and younger adults in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(12):1169–771.PubMedCrossRef
93.
Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, et al. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(27):2603–15.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, Kotloff K, Frey S, Novak R, et al. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(5):403–16.PubMedCrossRef
95.
Self WH, Tenforde MW, Rhoads JP, Gaglani M, Ginde AA, Douin DJ, et al. Comparative Effectiveness of Moderna, Pfizer-BioNTech, and Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) vaccines in preventing COVID-19 hospitalizations among adults without immunocompromising conditions—United States, March–August 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(38):1337–43.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
96.
Bar-On YM, Goldberg Y, Mandel M, Bodenheimer O, Freedman L, Kalkstein N, et al. Protection of BNT162b2 vaccine booster against Covid-19 in Israel. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(15):1393–400.PubMedCrossRef
97.
Abu-Raddad LJ, Chemaitelly H, Butt AA, National Study Group for C-V. Effectiveness of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(2):187–9.
98.
Lopez Bernal J, Andrews N, Gower C, Gallagher E, Simmons R, Thelwall S, et al. Effectiveness of Covid-19 vaccines against the B16172 (delta) variant. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(7):585–94.PubMedCrossRef
99.
Haas EJ, McLaughlin JM, Khan F, Angulo FJ, Anis E, Lipsitch M, et al. Infections, hospitalisations, and deaths averted via a nationwide vaccination campaign using the Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in Israel: a retrospective surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(3):357–66.PubMedCrossRef
100.
Dagan N, Barda N, Kepten E, Miron O, Perchik S, Katz MA, et al. BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine in a nationwide mass vaccination setting. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(15):1412–23.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Sibbel S, McKeon K, Luo J, Wendt K, Walker AG, Kelley T, et al. Real-world effectiveness and immunogenicity of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients on hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2022;33(1):49–57.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
102.
Chung H, He S, Nasreen S, Sundaram ME, Buchan SA, Wilson SE, et al. Effectiveness of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 covid-19 vaccines against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe covid-19 outcomes in Ontario, Canada: test negative design study. BMJ. 2021;20(374): n1943.CrossRef
103.
Falsey AR, Sobieszczyk ME, Hirsch I, Sproule S, Robb ML, Corey L, et al. Phase 3 safety and efficacy of AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(25):2348–60.PubMedCrossRef
104.
Widge AT, Rouphael NG, Jackson LA, Anderson EJ, Roberts PC, Makhene M, et al. Durability of responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(1):80–2.PubMedCrossRef
105.
Doria-Rose N, Suthar MS, Makowski M, O’Connell S, McDermott AB, Flach B, et al. Antibody persistence through 6 months after the second dose of mRNA-1273 vaccine for Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(23):2259–61.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
106.
Evans DJR, Pawlina W. The future of anatomy education: learning from Covid-19 disruption. Anat Sci Educ. 2022;15(4):643–9.PubMedCrossRef
107.
Cromer D, Steain M, Reynaldi A, Schlub TE, Wheatley AK, Juno JA, et al. Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis. Lancet Microbe. 2022;3(1):e52–61.PubMedCrossRef
108.
Bernal E, García-Villalba E, Pons E, Vicente MR, Tomás C, Minguela A, et al. Role of vaccination and anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in the clinical outcome of hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Med Clin Barcelona. 2023;160(11):476–83.CrossRef
109.
Chemaitelly H, Yassine HM, Benslimane FM, Al Khatib HA, Tang P, Hasan MR, et al. mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants and severe COVID-19 disease in Qatar. Nat Med. 2021;27(9):1614–21.PubMedCrossRef
110.
Bruxvoort KJ, Sy LS, Qian L, Ackerson BK, Luo Y, Lee GS, et al. Real-world effectiveness of the mRNA-1273 vaccine against COVID-19: interim results from a prospective observational cohort study. Lancet Reg Health Americas. 2022;6: 100134.PubMedCrossRef
111.
Tseng HF, Ackerson BK, Luo Y, Sy LS, Talarico CA, Tian Y, et al. Effectiveness of mRNA-1273 against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Delta variants. Nat Med. 2022;28(5):1063–71.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
112.
Xu K, Lei W, Kang B, Yang H, Wang Y, Lu Y, et al. A novel mRNA vaccine, SYS6006, against SARS-CoV-2. Front Immunol. 2022;13:1051576.PubMedCrossRef
113.
van Doremalen N, Lambe T, Spencer A, Belij-Rammerstorfer S, Purushotham JN, Port JR, et al. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques. Nature. 2020;586(7830):578–82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
114.
Barouch DH, Stephenson KE, Sadoff J, Yu J, Chang A, Gebre M, et al. Durable humoral and cellular immune responses 8 months after Ad26.COV2.S vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(10):951–3.PubMedCrossRef
115.
Solforosi L, Kuipers H, Jongeneelen M, Rosendahl Huber SK, van der Lubbe JEM, Dekking L, et al. Immunogenicity and efficacy of one and two doses of Ad26.COV2.S COVID vaccine in adult and aged NHP. J Exp Med. 2021;218(7):e20202756
116.
Chavda VP, Bezbaruah R, Valu D, Patel B, Kumar A, Prasad S, et al. Adenoviral vector-based vaccine platform for COVID-19: current status. Vaccines. 2023;11(2):432–61.
117.
Alter G, Yu J, Liu J, Chandrashekar A, Borducchi EN, Tostanoski LH, et al. Immunogenicity of Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants in humans. Nature. 2021;596(7871):268–72.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
118.
Polinski JM, Weckstein AR, Batech M, Kabelac C, Kamath T, Harvey R, et al. Durability of the single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine in the prevention of COVID-19 infections and hospitalizations in the US before and during the delta variant surge. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(3):e222959.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
119.
Stephenson KE, Le Gars M, Sadoff J, de Groot AM, Heerwegh D, Truyers C, et al. Immunogenicity of the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine for COVID-19. JAMA. 2021;325(15):1535–44.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Sadoff J, Gray G, Vandebosch A, Cardenas V, Shukarev G, Grinsztejn B, et al. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(23):2187–201.PubMedCrossRef
121.
Logunov DY, Dolzhikova IV, Shcheblyakov DV, Tukhvatulin AI, Zubkova OV, Dzharullaeva AS, et al. Safety and efficacy of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine: an interim analysis of a randomised controlled phase 3 trial in Russia. Lancet. 2021;397(10275):671–81.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
122.
Voysey M, Clemens SAC, Madhi SA, Weckx LY, Folegatti PM, Aley PK, et al. Safety and efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine (AZD1222) against SARS-CoV-2: an interim analysis of four randomised controlled trials in Brazil, South Africa, and the UK. Lancet. 2021;397(10269):99–111.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
123.
Corchado-Garcia J, Zemmour D, Hughes T, Bandi H, Cristea-Platon T, Lenehan P, et al. Analysis of the effectiveness of the Ad26.COV2.S adenoviral vector vaccine for preventing COVID-19. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(11):e2132540.
124.
Iheanacho CO, Eze UIH, Adida EA. A systematic review of effectiveness of BNT162b2 mRNA and ChAdOx1 adenoviral vector COVID-19 vaccines in the general population. Bull Natl Res Centre. 2021;45(1):150–59.CrossRef
125.
126.
Madhi SA, Baillie V, Cutland CL, Voysey M, Koen AL, Fairlie L, et al. Efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 Covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.351 variant. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(20):1885–98.PubMedCrossRef
127.
Kirsebom FCM, Andrews N, Stowe J, Toffa S, Sachdeva R, Gallagher E, et al. COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the omicron (BA.2) variant in England. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(7):931–3.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
128.
Dejnirattisai W, Huo J, Zhou D, Zahradnik J, Supasa P, Liu C, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Omicron-B.1.1.529 leads to widespread escape from neutralizing antibody responses. Cell. 2022;185(3):467–84e15.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
129.
Chen WH, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. Potential for developing a SARS-CoV receptor-binding domain (RBD) recombinant protein as a heterologous human vaccine against coronavirus infectious disease (COVID)-19. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2020;16(6):1239–42.CrossRef
130.
Yang S, Li Y, Dai L, Wang J, He P, Li C, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant tandem-repeat dimeric RBD-based protein subunit vaccine (ZF2001) against COVID-19 in adults: two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 and 2 trials. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(8):1107–19.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
131.
Lazo L, Bequet-Romero M, Lemos G, Musacchio A, Cabrales A, Bruno AJ, et al. A recombinant SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain expressed in an engineered fungal strain of Thermothelomyces heterothallica induces a functional immune response in mice. Vaccine. 2022;40(8):1162–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
132.
Tian JH, Patel N, Haupt R, Zhou H, Weston S, Hammond H, et al. SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein vaccine candidate NVX-CoV2373 immunogenicity in baboons and protection in mice. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):372–85.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
133.
Heath PT, Galiza EP, Baxter DN, Boffito M, Browne D, Burns F, et al. Safety and efficacy of NVX-CoV2373 covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(13):1172–83.PubMedCrossRef
134.
Xu X, Hong Y, Chen E, Wang Y, Ma B, Li J, et al. Antibodies induced by homologous or heterologous inactivated (CoronaVac/BBIBP-CorV) and recombinant protein subunit vaccines (ZF2001) dramatically enhanced inhibitory abilities against B.1.351, B.1.617.2, and B.1.1.529 variants. Vaccines. 2022;10(12):2110–23.
135.
Dai L, Gao L, Tao L, Hadinegoro SR, Erkin M, Ying Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of the RBD-dimer-based covid-19 vaccine ZF2001 in adults. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(22):2097–111.PubMedCrossRef
136.
Heidary M, Kaviar VH, Shirani M, Ghanavati R, Motahar M, Sholeh M, et al. A comprehensive review of the protein subunit vaccines against COVID-19. Front Microbiol. 2022;13: 927306.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
137.
Kelly HG, Kent SJ, Wheatley AK. Immunological basis for enhanced immunity of nanoparticle vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2019;18(3):269–80.PubMedCrossRef
138.
Dunkle LM, Kotloff KL, Gay CL, Anez G, Adelglass JM, Barrat Hernandez AQ, et al. Efficacy and safety of NVX-CoV2373 in adults in the United States and Mexico. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(6):531–43.PubMedCrossRef
139.
Shinde V, Bhikha S, Hoosain Z, Archary M, Bhorat Q, Fairlie L, et al. Efficacy of NVX-CoV2373 Covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.351 variant. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(20):1899–909.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
140.
Bhiman JN, Richardson SI, Lambson BE, Kgagudi P, Mzindle N, Kaldine H, et al. Novavax NVX-COV2373 triggers neutralization of Omicron sub-lineages. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):1222–26.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
141.
Huang B, Dai L, Wang H, Hu Z, Yang X, Tan W, et al. Serum sample neutralisation of BBIBP-CorV and ZF2001 vaccines to SARS-CoV-2 501Y.V2. Lancet Microbe. 2021;2(7):e285.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
142.
Zhao X, Zheng A, Li D, Zhang R, Sun H, Wang Q, et al. Neutralisation of ZF2001-elicited antisera to SARS-CoV-2 variants. Lancet Microbe. 2021t;2(10): e494.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
143.
Zhao X, Zhang R, Qiao S, Wang X, Zhang W, Ruan W, et al. Omicron SARS-CoV-2 neutralization from inactivated and ZF2001 vaccines. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):277–80.PubMedCrossRef
144.
Gao L, Li Y, He P, Chen Z, Yang H, Li F, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a protein subunit COVID-19 vaccine (ZF2001) in healthy children and adolescents aged 3–17 years in China: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 trial and an open-label, non-randomised, non-inferiority, phase 2 trial. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2023;7(4):269–79.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
145.
Li D, Duan M, Wang X, Gao P, Zhao X, Xu K, et al. Neutralization of BQ.1, BQ.1.1, and XBB with RBD-dimer vaccines. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(12):1142–5.PubMedCrossRef
146.
Wang Y, Yang C, Song Y, Coleman JR, Stawowczyk M, Tafrova J, et al. Scalable live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidate demonstrates preclinical safety and efficacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021;118(29):e2102775118.
147.
Trimpert J, Dietert K, Firsching TC, Ebert N, Thi Nhu Thao T, Vladimirova D, et al. Development of safe and highly protective live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates by genome recoding. Cell Rep. 2021;36(5):109493.
148.
Mehla R, Kokate P, Bhosale SR, Vaidya V, Narayanan S, Shandil RK, et al. A live attenuated COVID-19 candidate vaccine for children: protection against SARS-CoV-2 challenge in hamsters. Vaccines. 2023;11(2):255–71.
149.
Focosi D, Maggi F. Recombination in coronaviruses, with a focus on SARS-CoV-2. Viruses. 2022;14(6):1239-51.
150.
Jackson B, Boni MF, Bull MJ, Colleran A, Colquhoun RM, Darby AC, et al. Generation and transmission of interlineage recombinants in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Cell. 2021;184(20):5179–88 e8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
151.
Frederiksen LSF, Zhang Y, Foged C, Thakur A. The long road toward COVID-19 herd immunity: vaccine platform technologies and mass immunization strategies. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1817–42.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
152.
153.
Shafaati M, Saidijam M, Soleimani M, Hazrati F, Mirzaei R, Amirheidari B, et al. A brief review on DNA vaccines in the era of COVID-19. Future Virol. 2022;17:49–66.
154.
Castro Dopico X, Ols S, Lore K, Karlsson Hedestam GB. Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 induced by infection or vaccination. J Intern Med. 2022;291(1):32–50.PubMedCrossRef
155.
156.
Tamura T, Ito J, Uriu K, Zahradnik J, Kida I, Anraku Y, et al. Virological characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 XBB variant derived from recombination of two Omicron subvariants. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):2800–19.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
157.
158.
Risk M, Hayek SS, Schiopu E, Yuan L, Shen C, Shi X, et al. COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against omicron (B.1.1.529) variant infection and hospitalisation in patients taking immunosuppressive medications: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2022;4(11):e775–84.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
159.
Ahmed SK. Myocarditis after BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccination: a report of 7 cases. Ann Med Surg. 2022;77:103657.CrossRef
160.
Choi PY. Thrombotic thrombocytopenia after ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(3):e11.PubMed
161.
Rosner CM, Genovese L, Tehrani BN, Atkins M, Bakhshi H, Chaudhri S, et al. Myocarditis temporally associated with COVID-19 vaccination. Circulation. 2021;144(6):502–5.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
162.
Guetl K, Gary T, Raggam RB, Schmid J, Wolfler A, Brodmann M. SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia treated with immunoglobulin and argatroban. Lancet. 2021;397(10293):e19.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
163.
Ruggiero R, Balzano N, Di Napoli R, Mascolo A, Berrino PM, Rafaniello C, et al. Capillary leak syndrome following COVID-19 vaccination: data from the European pharmacovigilance database Eudravigilance. Front Immunol. 2022;13:956825.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
164.
Inoue M, Yasue Y, Kobayashi Y, Sugiyama Y. Systemic capillary leak syndrome (SCLS) after receiving BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 (Pfizer-BioNTech) vaccine. BMJ Case Rep. 2022;15(3):e248927.
165.
Ao D, Lan T, He X, Liu J, Chen L, Baptista-Hon DT, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant: Immune escape and vaccine development. Med Commun. 2022;3(1):e126.
166.
Dhama K, Nainu F, Frediansyah A, Yatoo MI, Mohapatra RK, Chakraborty S, et al. Global emerging Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2: impacts, challenges and strategies. J Infect Public Health. 2023;16(1):4–14.PubMedCrossRef
167.
Gong W, Parkkila S, Wu X, Aspatwar A. SARS-CoV-2 variants and COVID-19 vaccines: current challenges and future strategies. Int Rev Immunol. 2022;28:1–22.
168.
Magazine N, Zhang T, Wu Y, McGee MC, Veggiani G, Huang W. Mutations and evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Viruses. 2022;14(3):640–50.
169.
Abas AH, Marfuah S, Idroes R, Kusumawaty D, Fatimawali, Park MN, et al. Can the SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant confer natural immunity against COVID-19? Molecules. 2022;27(7):2221–39.
170.
Magiorkinis G. On the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 and the emergence of variants of concern. Trends Microbiol. 2023;31(1):5–8.PubMedCrossRef
171.
Uriu K, Ito J, Zahradnik J, Fujita S, Kosugi Y, Schreiber G, et al. Enhanced transmissibility, infectivity, and immune resistance of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron XBB.1.5 variant. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23(3):280–1.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
172.
Garrett N, Tapley A, Andriesen J, Seocharan I, Fisher LH, Bunts L, et al. High rate of asymptomatic carriage associated with variant strain omicron. Preprint at medRxiv. 2022.
173.
174.
Fleming TR, Krause PR, Nason M, Longini IM, Henao-Restrepo AM. COVID-19 vaccine trials: the use of active controls and non-inferiority studies. Clin Trials. 2021;18(3):335–42.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
175.
Excler JL, Saville M, Privor-Dumm L, Gilbert S, Hotez PJ, Thompson D, et al. Factors, enablers and challenges for COVID-19 vaccine development. BMJ Glob Health. 2023;8(6):e011879.
176.
Deng F, Pan J, Liu Z, Zeng L, Chen J. Programmable DNA biocomputing circuits for rapid and intelligent screening of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Biosens Bioelectron. 2023;1(223):115025.CrossRef
177.
Cheemarla NR, Watkins TA, Mihaylova VT, Wang B, Zhao D, Wang G, et al. Dynamic innate immune response determines susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection and early replication kinetics. J Exp Med. 2021;218(8):e20210583.
178.
An D, Li K, Rowe DK, Diaz MCH, Griffin EF, Beavis AC, et al. Protection of K18-hACE2 mice and ferrets against SARS-CoV-2 challenge by a single-dose mucosal immunization with a parainfluenza virus 5-based COVID-19 vaccine. Sci Adv. 2021;7(27):eabi5246.
179.
Loske J, Rohmel J, Lukassen S, Stricker S, Magalhaes VG, Liebig J, et al. Pre-activated antiviral innate immunity in the upper airways controls early SARS-CoV-2 infection in children. Nat Biotechnol. 2022;40(3):319–24.PubMedCrossRef
180.
Edara VV, Manning KE, Ellis M, Lai L, Moore KM, Foster SL, et al. mRNA-1273 and BNT162b2 mRNA vaccines have reduced neutralizing activity against the SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant. Cell Rep Med. 2022;3(2):100529.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
181.
Shuai HP, Chan JFW, Hu BJ, Chai Y, Yoon CM, Liu H, et al. The viral fitness and intrinsic pathogenicity of dominant SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineages BA.1, BA.2, and BA.5. Ebiomedicine. 2023 Sep;95:104753.
182.
Havervall S, Marking U, Svensson J, Greilert-Norin N, Bacchus P, Nilsson P, et al. Anti-spike mucosal IgA protection against SARS-CoV-2 omicron infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(14):1333–6.PubMedCrossRef
183.
Szabo PA, Levitin HM, Miron M, Snyder ME, Senda T, Yuan J, et al. Single-cell transcriptomics of human T cells reveals tissue and activation signatures in health and disease. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):4706–21.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
184.
Chen J, Wang P, Yuan L, Zhang L, Zhang L, Zhao H, et al. A live attenuated virus-based intranasal COVID-19 vaccine provides rapid, prolonged, and broad protection against SARS-CoV-2. Sci Bull. 2022;67(13):1372–87.CrossRef
185.
Castrodeza-Sanz J, Sanz-Munoz I, Eiros JM. Adjuvants for COVID-19 vaccines. Vaccines. 2023;11(5):902–18.
186.
Stertman L, Palm AE, Zarnegar B, Carow B, Lunderius Andersson C, Magnusson SE, et al. The matrix-M adjuvant: a critical component of vaccines for the 21(st) century. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2023;19(1):2189885.CrossRef
187.
Marks PW, Gruppuso PA, Adashi EY. Urgent need for next-generation COVID-19 vaccines. JAMA. 2023;329(1):19–20.PubMedCrossRef
188.
Chavda VP, Jogi G, Dave S, Patel BM, Vineela Nalla L, Koradia K. mRNA-based vaccine for COVID-19: they are new but not unknown! Vaccines. 2023;11(3):507–34.
189.
Mulroney TE, Poyry T, Yam-Puc JC, Rust M, Harvey RF, Kalmar L, et al. N(1)-methylpseudouridylation of mRNA causes +1 ribosomal frameshifting. Nature. 2024 Jan 4;625(7993):189–94.
190.
Bommireddy R, Stone S, Bhatnagar N, Kumari P, Munoz LE, Oh J, et al. Influenza virus-like particle-based hybrid vaccine containing RBD induces immunity against influenza and SARS-CoV-2 viruses. Vaccines. 2022;10(6):944–61.
191.
Zhang P, Narayanan E, Liu Q, Tsybovsky Y, Boswell K, Ding S, et al. A multiclade env-gag VLP mRNA vaccine elicits tier-2 HIV-1-neutralizing antibodies and reduces the risk of heterologous SHIV infection in macaques. Nat Med. 2021;27(12):2234–45.PubMedCrossRef
192.
Rosengarten JF, Schatz S, Wolf T, Barbe S, Stitz J. Components of a HIV-1 vaccine mediate virus-like particle (VLP)-formation and display of envelope proteins exposing broadly neutralizing epitopes. Virology. 2022;568:41–8.PubMedCrossRef
193.
Bedi R, Bayless NL, Glanville J. Challenges and progress in designing broad-spectrum vaccines against rapidly mutating viruses. Annu Rev Biomed Data Sci. 2023 Aug 10;6:419–41.
194.
Affonso de Oliveira JF, Zhao Z, Xiang Y, Shin MD, Villasenor KE, Deng X, et al. COVID-19 vaccines based on viral nanoparticles displaying a conserved B-cell epitope show potent immunogenicity and a long-lasting antibody response. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1117494.
195.
Duan Q, Lee KH, Nandre RM, Garcia C, Chen J, Zhang W. MEFA (multiepitope fusion antigen)-novel technology for structural vaccinology, proof from computational and empirical immunogenicity characterization of an enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) adhesin MEFA. J Vaccines Vaccination. 2017;8(4):367–84.
196.
Wu Y, Wang S, Zhang Y, Yuan L, Zheng Q, Wei M, et al. Lineage-mosaic and mutation-patched spike proteins for broad-spectrum COVID-19 vaccine. Cell Host Microbe. 2022;30(12):1732–44 e7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
197.
Yu AT, Absar NM. Long-term neuropsychiatric complications and 18F-FDG-PET hypometabolism in the brain from prolonged infection of COVID-19. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2022;36(2):173–5.PubMedCrossRef
198.
Desai AD, Lavelle M, Boursiquot BC, Wan EY. Long-term complications of COVID-19. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2022;322(1):C1–11.PubMedCrossRef
199.
Knoke L, Schlegtendal A, Maier C, Eitner L, Lucke T, Brinkmann F. Pulmonary function and long-term respiratory symptoms in children and adolescents after COVID-19. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:851008.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
200.
Araujo N, Silva I, Campos P, Correia R, Calejo M, Freitas P, et al. Long-term neurological complications in COVID-19 survivors: study protocol of a prospective cohort study (NeurodegCoV-19). BMJ Open. 2023;13(7):e072981.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
201.
Ding QL, Zhao HJ. Long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human brain and memory. Cell Death Discov. 2023;9(1):196-203.
202.
203.
Bowe B, Xie Y, Al-Aly Z. Postacute sequelae of COVID-19 at 2 years. Nat Med. 2023 Sep;29(9):2347–57.
Metadata
Title
Current Progress, Challenges and Prospects in the Development of COVID-19 Vaccines
Authors
Congrui Zhu
Shengmei Pang
Jiaqi Liu
Qiangde Duan
Publication date
23-04-2024
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Drugs
Print ISSN: 0012-6667
Electronic ISSN: 1179-1950
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-024-02013-8