Top

Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology

Published in:

01-04-2015 | Original Paper

Community violence exposure and severe posttraumatic stress in suburban American youth: risk and protective factors

Authors: Sandra Löfving–Gupta, Frank Lindblad, Andrew Stickley, Mary Schwab-Stone, Vladislav Ruchkin

Published in: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology | Issue 4/2015

Abstract

Purpose

The psychological effects of community violence exposure among inner-city youth are severe, yet little is known about its prevalence and moderators among suburban middle-class youth. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of community violence exposure among suburban American youth, to examine associated posttraumatic stress and to evaluate factors related to severe vs. less severe posttraumatic stress, such as co-existing internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as the effects of teacher support, parental warmth and support, perceived neighborhood safety and conventional involvement in this context.

Method

Data were collected from 780 suburban, predominantly Caucasian middle-class high-school adolescents in the Northeastern US during the Social and Health Assessment (SAHA) study.

Results

A substantial number of suburban youth were exposed to community violence and 24 % of those victimized by community violence developed severe posttraumatic stress. Depressive symptoms were strongly associated with higher levels and perceived teacher support with lower levels of posttraumatic stress.

Conclusion

Similar to urban youth, youth living in suburban areas in North American settings may be affected by community violence. A substantial proportion of these youth reports severe posttraumatic stress and high levels of comorbid depressive symptoms. Teacher support may have a protective effect against severe posttraumatic stress and thus needs to be further assessed as a potential factor that can be used to mitigate the detrimental effects of violence exposure.

Buka SL, Stichick TL, Birdthistle I, Earls FJ (2001) Youth exposure to violence: prevalence, risks, and consequences. Am J Orthopsychiatry. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.71.3.298 PubMed

Stein BD, Jaycox LH, Kataoka S, Rhodes HJ, Vestal KD (2003) Prevalence of child and adolescent exposure to community violence. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006292.61072.d2 PubMed

Aisenberg E, Herrenkohl T (2008) Community violence in context: risk and resilience in children and families. J Interpers Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260507312287

Cooley-Strickland M, Quille TJ, Griffin RS, Stuart EA, Bradshaw CP, Furr-Holden D (2009) Community violence and youth: affect, behavior, substance use, and academics. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0051-6 PubMedCentralPubMed

Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA (2009) History of violence as a public health problem. Virtual Mentor. doi:10.1001/virtualmentor.2009.11.2.mhst1-0902 PubMed

Finkelhor D, Turner H, Ormrod R, Hamby SL (2009) Violence, abuse, and crime exposure in a national sample of children and youth. Pediatrics. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0467 PubMed

Kuther TL, Fisher CB (1998) Victimization by community violence in young adolescents from a suburban city. J Early Adolesc. doi:10.1177/0272431698018001003

Lynch M (2003) Consequences of children’s exposure to community violence. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006293.77143.e1 PubMed

Cooley-Quille M, Boyd RC, Frantz E, Walsh J (2001) Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 30(2):199–206CrossRef

10.

Freeman LN, Mokros H, Poznanski EO (1993) Violent events reported by normal urban school-aged children: characteristics and depression correlates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1097/00004583-199303000-00025

11.

Fitzpatrick KM, Boldizar JP (1993) The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1097/00004583-199303000-00026 PubMed

12.

Ozer EJ, Weinstein RS (2004) Urban adolescents’ exposure to community violence: the role of support, school safety, and social constraints in a school-based sample of boys and girls. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_4

13.

Henrich CC, Schwab-Stone M, Fanti K, Jones SM, Ruchkin V (2004) The association of community violence exposure with middle-school achievement: a prospective study. J Appl Dev Psychol. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.004

14.

Gorman-Smith D, Tolan P (1998) The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Psychopathol Dev. doi:10.1017/S0954579498001539

15.

Schwab-Stone M, Chen C, Greenberger E, Silver D, Lichtman J, Voyce C (1999) No safe haven. II: The effects of violence exposure on urban youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38(4):359–367CrossRefPubMed

16.

Singer MI, Anglin TM, Song LY, Lunghofer L (1995) Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma. JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.1995.03520300051036

17.

Foster JD, Kuperminc GP, Price AW (2004) Gender differences in posttraumatic stress and related symptoms among inner-city minority youth exposed to community violence. J Youth Adolesc 33:59–69CrossRef

18.

Gladstein J, Rusonis EJ, Heald FP (1992) A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence. J Adolesc Health. doi:10.1016/1054-139X(92)90159-9 PubMed

19.

Zinzow HM, Ruggiero KJ, Resnick H, Hanson R, Smith D, Saunders B, Kilpatrick D (2009) Prevalence and mental health correlates of witnessed parental and community violence in a national sample of adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02004.x PubMedCentralPubMed

20.

White KS, Bruce SE, Farrell AD, Kliewer W (1998) Impact of exposure to community violence on anxiety: a longitudinal study of family social support as a protective factor for urban children. J Child Fam Stud. doi:10.1023/A:1022943216319

21.

Kliewer W, Cunningham JN, Diehl R, Parrish KA, Walker JM, Atiyeh C, Neace B, Duncan L, Taylor K, Mejia R (2004) Violence exposure and adjustment in inner-city youth: child and caregiver emotion regulation skill, caregiver-child relationship quality, and neighborhood cohesion as protective factor. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_5

22.

Hammack PL, Richards MH, Luo Z, Edlynn ES, Roy K (2004) Social support factors as moderators of community violence exposure among inner-city African American young adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_3 PubMed

23.

Ozer EJ (2005) The impact of violence on urban adolescents longitudinal effects of perceived school connection and family support. J Adolesc Res. doi:10.1177/0743558404273072

24.

Barr SC, Hanson R, Begle AM, Kilpatrick DG, Saunders B, Resnick H, Amstadter A (2012) Examining the moderating role of family cohesion on the relationship between witnessed community violence and delinquency in a national sample of adolescents. J Interpers Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260511416477 PubMedCentralPubMed

25.

Resnick BP (1997) Protecting adolescents from harm: findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550100049038 PubMed

26.

O’Donnell DA, Schwab-Stone ME, Muyeed AZ (2003) Multidimensional resilience in urban children exposed to community violence. Child Dev. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00471

27.

Aneshensel CS, Sucoff CA (1996) The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health. J Health Soc Behav. doi:10.2307/2137258 PubMed

28.

Overstreet S, Braun S (2000) Exposure to community violence and post-traumatic stress symptoms: mediating factors. Am J Orthopsychiatry 70(2):263–271CrossRefPubMed

29.

Richards MH, Larson R, Miller BV, Luo Z, Sims B, Parrella DP, McCauley C (2004) Risky and protective contexts and exposure to violence in urban African American young adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_13

30.

Osgood DW, Wilson JK, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Johnston LD (1996) Routine activities and individual deviant behavior. Am Sociol Rev. doi:10.1037/h0087828

31.

Pettit GS, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Meece DW (1999) The impact of after-school peer contact on early adolescent externalizing problems is moderated by parental monitoring, perceived neighborhood safety, and prior adjustment. Child Dev. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00055 PubMedCentral

32.

Gardner M, Brooks-Gunn J (2009) Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: are neighborhood youth organizations protective? J Community Psychol. doi:10.1002/jcop.20310 PubMedCentralPubMed

33.

Gottfredson DC, Gerstenblith SA, Soulé DA, Womer SC, Lu S (2004) Do after school programs reduce delinquency? Sci Prev. doi:10.1177/0886260508314297

34.

Hoffmann JP, Xu J (2002) School activities, community service, and delinquency. Crime Delinquency. doi:10.1177/001112802237130

35.

Weissberg RP, Voyce CK, Kasprow WJ, Arthur MW, Shriver TP (1991) The social and health assessment. Yale Child Study Center, Chicago

36.

Schwab-Stone M, Ayers TS, Kasprow W, Voyce C, Barone C, Shriver T, Weissberg RP (1995) No safe haven: a study of violence exposure in an urban community. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1097/00004583-199510000-00020

37.

JE Richters, W Saltzman (1990) Survey of exposure to community violence: self-report version. JE Richters

38.

Richters JE, Martinez P (1993) The NIMH community violence project: Vol I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry 56:7–21PubMed

39.

Pynoos RS, Frederick C, Nader K, Arroyo W, Steinberg A, Eth S, Nunez F, Fairbanks L (1987) Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children. Arch Gen Psychiatry. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800240031005 PubMed

40.

Pynoos RS, Goenjian A, Tashjian M, Karakashian M, Manjikian R, Manoukian G, Steinberg AM, Fairbanks LA (1993) Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake. Br J Psychiatry 163:239–247CrossRefPubMed

41.

Radloff LS (1977) The CES-D scale A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306

42.

Roberts RE, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR (1991) Screening for adolescent depression: a comparison of depression scales. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1097/00004583-199101000-00009 PubMed

43.

Andrykowski JSCMA, Mary JWLAH (1998) Psychometrics for two short forms of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale. Issues Ment Health Nurs. doi:10.1080/016128498248917 PubMed

44.

Ruchkin V, Schwab-Stone M, Vermeiren R (2004) Social and health assessment (SAHA): Psychometric development summary. Yale Univ, N. Hav

45.

Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY (1992) Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychol Bull 112:64CrossRefPubMed

46.

African-American youth, Fitzpatrick KM (1993) Exposure to violence and presence of depression among low-income. J Consult Clin Psychol. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.3.528

47.

Margolin G, Gordis EB (2000) The effects of family and community violence on children. Annu Rev Psychol. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.445 PubMed

48.

Kilpatrick DG, Ruggiero KJ, Acierno R, Saunders BE, Resnick HS, Best CL (2003) Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: results from the National Survey of Adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol 71:692–700CrossRefPubMed

49.

Breslau N (1997) Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230082012

50.

Anderson ER, Mayes LC (2010) Race/ethnicity and internalizing disorders in youth: a review. Clin Psychol Rev . doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.008

51.

Basch CE (2011) Aggression and violence and the achievement gap among urban minority youth. J Sch Health. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00636.x

52.

Garber J, Weersing VR (2010) Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in youth: implications for treatment and prevention. Clin Psychol. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01221.x

53.

Oquendo M, Brent DA, Birmaher B, Greenhill L, Kolko D, Stanley B, Zelazny J, Burke AK, Firinciogullari S, Ellis SP, Mann JJ (2005) Posttraumatic stress disorder comorbid with major depression: factors mediating the association with suicidal behavior. Am J Psychiatry 162(3):560–566CrossRefPubMed

54.

Haden SC, Scarpa A (2008) Community violence victimization and depressed mood: the moderating effects of coping and social support. J Interpers Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260508314297 PubMed

55.

Borman GD, Dowling NM (2008) Teacher attrition and retention: a meta-analytic and narrative review of the research. Educ Res Rev. doi:10.3102/0034654308321455

56.

Shen J (1997) Teacher retention and attrition in public schools: evidence from SASS91. J Educ Res. doi:10.1080/00220679709597525

57.

Fuligni AJ, Eccles JS (1993) Perceived parent-child relationships and early adolescents’ orientation toward peers. Psychol Dev. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.622

58.

Hill HM, Jones LP (1997) Children’s and parents’ perceptions of children’s exposure to violence in urban neighborhoods. J Natl Med Assoc 89:270PubMedCentralPubMed

59.

Cunningham M (1999) African American adolescent males’ perceptions of their community resources and constraints: a longitudinal analysis. J Community Psychol. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199909)27:5<569:AID-JCOP5>3.0.CO;2-6

60.

Panagioti M, Gooding PA, Tarrier N (2012) A meta-analysis of the association between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidality: the role of comorbid depression. Compr Psychiatry. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.02.009 PubMed

Title: Community violence exposure and severe posttraumatic stress in suburban American youth: risk and protective factors
Authors: Sandra Löfving–Gupta
Frank Lindblad
Andrew Stickley
Mary Schwab-Stone
Vladislav Ruchkin
Publication date: 01-04-2015
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology / Issue 4/2015
Print ISSN: 0933-7954
Electronic ISSN: 1433-9285
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0965-2

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Community violence exposure and severe posttraumatic stress in suburban American youth: risk and protective factors

Abstract

Purpose

Method

Results

Conclusion

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Purpose

Method

Results

Conclusion

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 4/2015

Categories, continua and the growth of psychiatric knowledge

Mood as a mediator of the link between child sexual abuse and psychosis

Loss of social resources predicts incident posttraumatic stress disorder during ongoing political violence within the Palestinian Authority

Erratum to: Courses of helping alliance in the treatment of people with severe mental illness in Europe: a latent class analytic approach

Suicidality and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Factors of psychological distress: clinical value, measurement substance, and methodological artefacts