Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Sexual Health Reports 2/2019

Open Access 01-06-2019 | Circumcision | Sociocultural Issues and Epidemiology (J Abdulcadir and C Johnson-Agbakwu, Section Editors)

Pricking in the African Diaspora: Current Evidence and Recurrent Debates

Authors: Anna Wahlberg, Jessica Påfs, Malin Jordal

Published in: Current Sexual Health Reports | Issue 2/2019

Login to get access

Abstract

Purpose of Review

The purpose of this review is to assess current evidence and summarise key debates on pricking within the African diaspora.

Recent Findings

Current evidence reveals divergent views regarding pricking. (Inter)national legislation is unspecific regarding the illegality of pricking, further complicated by the difficulty of detecting pricking due to a lack of visible change in the genitalia. Debates are polarised and pricking is commonly viewed from a ‘harm reduction’ or ‘zero tolerance’ approach. This means that pricking can be approved of as a strategy for minimising health risks of female genital cutting (FGC) while still allowing for cultural diversity, or rejected as a violation of girl’s human rights and bodily integrity.

Summary

Pricking is receiving increased attention, yet evidence from a migration context is still scarce. More research regarding the underlying reasons for supporting pricking, its potential harm, and whether it has a role in the eradication process of FGC is needed.
Literature
1.
go back to reference World Health Organization. Eliminating female genital mutilation: an interagency statement UNAIDS, UNPD, UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCHR, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO. Geneva; 2008. World Health Organization. Eliminating female genital mutilation: an interagency statement UNAIDS, UNPD, UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCHR, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO. Geneva; 2008.
2.
go back to reference Clarence-Smith WG. Islam and female genital cutting in southeast Asia: the weight of the past. Finish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration. 2008;3(2). Clarence-Smith WG. Islam and female genital cutting in southeast Asia: the weight of the past. Finish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration. 2008;3(2).
3.
go back to reference Catania L, Mastrullo R, Caselli A, Cecere R, Abdulcadir O, Abdulcadir J. Female genital mutilation/cutting: perspectives of men from Benin, Eritrea, Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Somalia after migration to Italy. International Journal of Human Rights in Healthcare. 2016;9(1). Catania L, Mastrullo R, Caselli A, Cecere R, Abdulcadir O, Abdulcadir J. Female genital mutilation/cutting: perspectives of men from Benin, Eritrea, Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Somalia after migration to Italy. International Journal of Human Rights in Healthcare. 2016;9(1).
4.
go back to reference United Nations Children’s Fund. Female genital mutilation/cutting. A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change. New York; 2013. United Nations Children’s Fund. Female genital mutilation/cutting. A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change. New York; 2013.
5.
6.
go back to reference Koski A, Heymann J. Thirty-year trends in the prevalence and severity of female genital mutilation: a comparison of 22 countries. BMJ Global Health. 2017;2(e000467). Koski A, Heymann J. Thirty-year trends in the prevalence and severity of female genital mutilation: a comparison of 22 countries. BMJ Global Health. 2017;2(e000467).
8.
go back to reference Mepukori DN. Is alternative rite of passage the key to abandonment of female genital cutting? A case study of the Samburu of Kenya. Duke University; 2016. Mepukori DN. Is alternative rite of passage the key to abandonment of female genital cutting? A case study of the Samburu of Kenya. Duke University; 2016.
11.
go back to reference Bjälkander O, Grant DS, Berggren V, Bathija H, Almroth L. Female genital mutilation in sierra leone: forms, reliability of reported status, and accuracy of related demographic and health survey questions. Obstet Gynecol Int 2013(680926). Bjälkander O, Grant DS, Berggren V, Bathija H, Almroth L. Female genital mutilation in sierra leone: forms, reliability of reported status, and accuracy of related demographic and health survey questions. Obstet Gynecol Int 2013(680926).
12.
go back to reference Isa AR, Shuib R, Othman MS. The practice of female circumcision among Muslims in Kelantan, Malaysia. Reprod Health Matters. 1999;7(13):137–44.CrossRef Isa AR, Shuib R, Othman MS. The practice of female circumcision among Muslims in Kelantan, Malaysia. Reprod Health Matters. 1999;7(13):137–44.CrossRef
13.
go back to reference Merli C. Negotiating female genital cutting (sunat) in Southern Thailand. In Self-determination and women’s rights in Muslim Societies. Raghavan C, Levine J, editors. Brandeis University Press; 2012. 169–187 p. Merli C. Negotiating female genital cutting (sunat) in Southern Thailand. In Self-determination and women’s rights in Muslim Societies. Raghavan C, Levine J, editors. Brandeis University Press; 2012. 169–187 p.
14.
go back to reference Newland L. Female circumcision: Muslim identities and zero tolerance policies in rural West Java. Women's Stud Int Forum. 2006;29:394–404.CrossRef Newland L. Female circumcision: Muslim identities and zero tolerance policies in rural West Java. Women's Stud Int Forum. 2006;29:394–404.CrossRef
15.
go back to reference Taher M. Understanding female genital cutting in the Dawoodi Bohra Community: an exploration survey. 2017. Taher M. Understanding female genital cutting in the Dawoodi Bohra Community: an exploration survey. 2017.
16.
go back to reference Feillard A, Marcoes L. Female circumcision in Indonesia: to “Islamize” in ceremony or secrecy. Archipel. 1998;56:337–67.CrossRef Feillard A, Marcoes L. Female circumcision in Indonesia: to “Islamize” in ceremony or secrecy. Archipel. 1998;56:337–67.CrossRef
17.
go back to reference Budiharsana M, Amaliah L, Utomo B, Erwinia. Female circumcision in Indonesia: extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women’s health rights. Jakarta; 2003. Budiharsana M, Amaliah L, Utomo B, Erwinia. Female circumcision in Indonesia: extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women’s health rights. Jakarta; 2003.
19.
go back to reference Berns MGR. Muslims in the diaspora: the Somali communities of London and Toronto. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1999.CrossRef Berns MGR. Muslims in the diaspora: the Somali communities of London and Toronto. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1999.CrossRef
20.
go back to reference •• Wahlberg A, Johnsdotter S, Ekholm Selling K, Källestål C, Essén B. Factors associated with the support of pricking (female genital cutting type IV) among Somali immigrants – a cross-sectional study in Sweden. Reproductive Health; 2017;14(92). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-017-0351-0. This cross-sectional study explores important factors for supporting the continuation of pricking. •• Wahlberg A, Johnsdotter S, Ekholm Selling K, Källestål C, Essén B. Factors associated with the support of pricking (female genital cutting type IV) among Somali immigrants – a cross-sectional study in Sweden. Reproductive Health; 2017;14(92). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s12978-017-0351-0. This cross-sectional study explores important factors for supporting the continuation of pricking.
22.
go back to reference Farina P, Ortensi LE. The mother to daughter transmission of female genital cutting in emigration as evidenced by Italian survey data. Genus. 2014;70(2):111–37. Farina P, Ortensi LE. The mother to daughter transmission of female genital cutting in emigration as evidenced by Italian survey data. Genus. 2014;70(2):111–37.
23.
go back to reference • Wahlberg A. Continuity or change? Improved understanding of attitudes towards female genital cutting after migration from Somalia to Sweden. Uppsala University; 2017. This PhD thesis investigates the impact of migration on cultural change regarding FGC with a particular focus on the practice of pricking. • Wahlberg A. Continuity or change? Improved understanding of attitudes towards female genital cutting after migration from Somalia to Sweden. Uppsala University; 2017. This PhD thesis investigates the impact of migration on cultural change regarding FGC with a particular focus on the practice of pricking.
24.
go back to reference Abdulcadir J, Margairaz C, Boulvain M, Irion O. Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting. Swiss med wkly. 2011;(January). Abdulcadir J, Margairaz C, Boulvain M, Irion O. Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting. Swiss med wkly. 2011;(January).
25.
go back to reference Coleman DL. The Seattle compromise: multicultural sensitivity and americanization. Duke Law J. 1998;47:717–83.CrossRef Coleman DL. The Seattle compromise: multicultural sensitivity and americanization. Duke Law J. 1998;47:717–83.CrossRef
27.
go back to reference •• Arora KS, Jacobs AJ. Female genital alteration: a compromise solution. J Med Ethics. 2016;42:148–54. This study provides arguments for why practices such as pricking should be tolerated. •• Arora KS, Jacobs AJ. Female genital alteration: a compromise solution. J Med Ethics. 2016;42:148–54. This study provides arguments for why practices such as pricking should be tolerated.
29.
go back to reference •• Earp BD. In defence of genital autonomy for children. J Med Ethics. 2016;42(3):158–63. This study provides a thorough description of why all forms of genital cutting on children should not be tolerated. CrossRefPubMed •• Earp BD. In defence of genital autonomy for children. J Med Ethics. 2016;42(3):158–63. This study provides a thorough description of why all forms of genital cutting on children should not be tolerated. CrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Johnsdotter S. Created by God. How Somalis in Swedish exile reassess the practice of female circumcision: Lund University; 2002. Johnsdotter S. Created by God. How Somalis in Swedish exile reassess the practice of female circumcision: Lund University; 2002.
34.
go back to reference Behrendt A. Listening to African voices: female genital mutilation/cutting among immigrants in Hamburg: knowledge, attitudes and practice. Hamburg; 2011. Behrendt A. Listening to African voices: female genital mutilation/cutting among immigrants in Hamburg: knowledge, attitudes and practice. Hamburg; 2011.
35.
39.
go back to reference Exterkate M. Female genital mutilation in the Netherlands: prevalence, incidence and determinants. Utrecht: 2013. Exterkate M. Female genital mutilation in the Netherlands: prevalence, incidence and determinants. Utrecht: 2013.
41.
go back to reference • Hodes D, Armitage A, Robinson K, Creighton SM. Female genital mutilation in children presenting to a London safeguarding clinic: a case series. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101:212–6. This study describes challenges in identifying pricking at a paediatric clinic. CrossRefPubMed • Hodes D, Armitage A, Robinson K, Creighton SM. Female genital mutilation in children presenting to a London safeguarding clinic: a case series. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101:212–6. This study describes challenges in identifying pricking at a paediatric clinic. CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Creighton SM, Dear J, De Campos C, Williams L, Hodes D. Multidisciplinary approach to the management of children with female genital mutilation (FGM) or suspected FGM: service description and case series. BMJ Open. 2016;6:e010311.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Creighton SM, Dear J, De Campos C, Williams L, Hodes D. Multidisciplinary approach to the management of children with female genital mutilation (FGM) or suspected FGM: service description and case series. BMJ Open. 2016;6:e010311.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
44.
go back to reference EIGE. Female genital mutilation in the European Union and Croatia. Vilnius; 2013. EIGE. Female genital mutilation in the European Union and Croatia. Vilnius; 2013.
45.
go back to reference SFS 1982:316. Lag med förbud mot könsstympning av kvinnor [Act prohibiting female genital mutilation of women]. Stockholm; 1982. SFS 1982:316. Lag med förbud mot könsstympning av kvinnor [Act prohibiting female genital mutilation of women]. Stockholm; 1982.
46.
go back to reference Council of Europe. Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. Istanbul; 2011. Council of Europe. Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. Istanbul; 2011.
48.
go back to reference Rogers JB. The first case addressing female genital cutting in Australia: where is the harm? AltLJ. 2016;41(4):235–8. Rogers JB. The first case addressing female genital cutting in Australia: where is the harm? AltLJ. 2016;41(4):235–8.
51.
go back to reference Darby R. Moral hypocrisy or intellectual inconsistency? A historical perspective on our habit of placing male and female genital cutting in separate ethical boxes. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 2016;26(2):155–63.CrossRefPubMed Darby R. Moral hypocrisy or intellectual inconsistency? A historical perspective on our habit of placing male and female genital cutting in separate ethical boxes. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 2016;26(2):155–63.CrossRefPubMed
52.
go back to reference Hernlund Y, Shell-Duncan B. Transcultural positions: negotiating rights and culture. In: Hernlund Y, Shell-Duncan B, editors. Transcultural bodies: female genital cutting in global context. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press; 2007. p. 1–43. Hernlund Y, Shell-Duncan B. Transcultural positions: negotiating rights and culture. In: Hernlund Y, Shell-Duncan B, editors. Transcultural bodies: female genital cutting in global context. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press; 2007. p. 1–43.
53.
go back to reference Earp BD. Does female genital mutilation have health benefits? The problem with medicalizing morality. Quillette Magazine. 2017;(August 15). Earp BD. Does female genital mutilation have health benefits? The problem with medicalizing morality. Quillette Magazine. 2017;(August 15).
55.
go back to reference Onsongo N. Female genital cutting (FGC): who defines whose culture as unethical? International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics. 2017;10(2):105–23.CrossRef Onsongo N. Female genital cutting (FGC): who defines whose culture as unethical? International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics. 2017;10(2):105–23.CrossRef
56.
go back to reference Latham S. The campaign against female genital cutting: empowering women or reinforcing global inequity? Ethics and Social Welfare. 2016;6535(April). Latham S. The campaign against female genital cutting: empowering women or reinforcing global inequity? Ethics and Social Welfare. 2016;6535(April).
57.
go back to reference Barrett H, Brown K, Beecham D, Otoo-Oyortey N, Naleie Z. Researching female genital mutilation (FGM): intervention programmes linked to African communities in the EU. 2011. Barrett H, Brown K, Beecham D, Otoo-Oyortey N, Naleie Z. Researching female genital mutilation (FGM): intervention programmes linked to African communities in the EU. 2011.
59.
go back to reference Richard F. Why we should be against the medicalisation of female genital mutilation. 2016. Richard F. Why we should be against the medicalisation of female genital mutilation. 2016.
60.
go back to reference Berg RC, Underland V. Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). Oslo: Report from Kunnskapssenteret; 2014. Berg RC, Underland V. Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). Oslo: Report from Kunnskapssenteret; 2014.
61.
go back to reference Obiora LA. Bridges and barricades: rethinking polemics and intransigence in the campaign against female circumcision. Cas W Res L Rev. 1997;47(2):275–378. Obiora LA. Bridges and barricades: rethinking polemics and intransigence in the campaign against female circumcision. Cas W Res L Rev. 1997;47(2):275–378.
62.
go back to reference Shweder RA. What about “female genital mutilation”? And why understanding culture matters in the first place. Daedalus. 2000;129(4):209–32. Shweder RA. What about “female genital mutilation”? And why understanding culture matters in the first place. Daedalus. 2000;129(4):209–32.
63.
go back to reference •• Wahlberg A, Essén B, Johnsdotter S. From sameness to difference: Swedish Somalis’ post-migration perceptions of the circumcision of girls and boys. Culture, health & sexuality. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2018.1502472. This qualitative study explores migrants’ perceptions of non-therapeutic male genital cutting and female genital cutting/pricking. •• Wahlberg A, Essén B, Johnsdotter S. From sameness to difference: Swedish Somalis’ post-migration perceptions of the circumcision of girls and boys. Culture, health & sexuality. 2018. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​13691058.​2018.​1502472. This qualitative study explores migrants’ perceptions of non-therapeutic male genital cutting and female genital cutting/pricking.
65.
go back to reference World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on the management of health complications from female genital mutilation. Geneva; 2016. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on the management of health complications from female genital mutilation. Geneva; 2016.
66.
go back to reference Muteshi J, Sass J. Female genital mutilation in Africa: an analysis of current abandonment approaches. Nairobi; 2005. Muteshi J, Sass J. Female genital mutilation in Africa: an analysis of current abandonment approaches. Nairobi; 2005.
68.
go back to reference Shell-Duncan B, Moore Z, Njue C. The medicalization of female genital mutilation/cutting: what do the data reveal? Evidence to end FGM/C: research to help women thrive. New York: Medical anthropology quarterly; 2017. Shell-Duncan B, Moore Z, Njue C. The medicalization of female genital mutilation/cutting: what do the data reveal? Evidence to end FGM/C: research to help women thrive. New York: Medical anthropology quarterly; 2017.
70.
go back to reference Cappon S, L’Ecluse C, Clays E, Tency I, Leye E. Female genital mutilation: knowledge, attitude and practices of Flemish midwives. Midwifery. 2015;31(3):e29–35.CrossRefPubMed Cappon S, L’Ecluse C, Clays E, Tency I, Leye E. Female genital mutilation: knowledge, attitude and practices of Flemish midwives. Midwifery. 2015;31(3):e29–35.CrossRefPubMed
71.
go back to reference Abu-Sahlieh SAA. To mutilate in the name of Jehovah or Allah: legitimization of male and female circumcision. Med Law. 1994;13:575–622.PubMed Abu-Sahlieh SAA. To mutilate in the name of Jehovah or Allah: legitimization of male and female circumcision. Med Law. 1994;13:575–622.PubMed
Metadata
Title
Pricking in the African Diaspora: Current Evidence and Recurrent Debates
Authors
Anna Wahlberg
Jessica Påfs
Malin Jordal
Publication date
01-06-2019
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Sexual Health Reports / Issue 2/2019
Print ISSN: 1548-3584
Electronic ISSN: 1548-3592
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-019-00198-8

Other articles of this Issue 2/2019

Current Sexual Health Reports 2/2019 Go to the issue

Sociocultural Issues and Epidemiology (J Abdulcadir and C Johnson-Agbakwu, Section Editors)

Sex, Grief, and Psychic Trauma: Considering History and Politics in the Psychosexual Treatment of Women with FGC

Sociocultural Issues and Epidemiology (J Abdulcadir and C Johnson-Agbakwu, Section Editors)

Female Genital Cutting in Immigrant Children—Considerations in Treatment and Prevention in the United States

Clinical Therapeutics (B McCarthy and R Segraves, Section Editors)

Sexual Desire Discrepancy

Clinical Therapeutics (B McCarthy and R Segraves, Section Editors)

Sensate Focus for Sexual Concerns: an Updated, Critical Literature Review

Urology, Gynecology, and Endocrinology (J Simon and M Luria, Section Editors)

Chronic Scrotal Content Pain: an Updated Review on Diagnosis and Management

Current Controversies (P Kleinplatz and C Moser, Section Editors)

Is BDSM a Sexual Orientation or Serious Leisure?