Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports 1/2016

01-01-2016 | Child and Family Disaster Psychiatry (B Pfefferbaum, Section Editor)

Child Disaster Mental Health Services: a Review of the System of Care, Assessment Approaches, and Evidence Base for Intervention

Authors: Betty Pfefferbaum, Carol S. North

Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports | Issue 1/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Several decades of research have informed our knowledge of children’s reactions to disasters and the factors that influence their reactions. This article describes the system of care for child disaster mental health services using population risk to determine needed services and a stepped care approach built on assessment and monitoring to advance children to appropriate services. To assess the evidence base for disaster interventions, recent reviews of numerous child disaster mental health interventions are summarized.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Jacobs AK, Griffin N, Houston JB. Children’s disaster reactions: the influence of exposure and personal characteristics. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015; 17(7). Published online. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0598-5. Pfefferbaum B, Jacobs AK, Griffin N, Houston JB. Children’s disaster reactions: the influence of exposure and personal characteristics. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015; 17(7). Published online. doi:10.​1007/​s11920-015-0598-5.
2.
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Jacobs AK, Houston JB, Griffin N. Children’s disaster reactions: the influence of family and social factors. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015;17(7). Published online. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0597-6. Pfefferbaum B, Jacobs AK, Houston JB, Griffin N. Children’s disaster reactions: the influence of family and social factors. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015;17(7). Published online. doi:10.​1007/​s11920-015-0597-6.
3.••
go back to reference Forman-Hoffman VL, Zolotor AJ, McKeeman JL, Blanco R, Knauer SR, Lloyd SW, et al. Comparative effectiveness of interventions for children exposed to nonrelational traumatic events. Pediatrics. 2013;31:526–39. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3846. This review compares the effectiveness of interventions for children exposed to nonrelational trauma.CrossRef Forman-Hoffman VL, Zolotor AJ, McKeeman JL, Blanco R, Knauer SR, Lloyd SW, et al. Comparative effectiveness of interventions for children exposed to nonrelational traumatic events. Pediatrics. 2013;31:526–39. doi:10.​1542/​peds.​2012-3846. This review compares the effectiveness of interventions for children exposed to nonrelational trauma.CrossRef
5.
go back to reference Newman E, Pfefferbaum B, Kirlic N, Tett R, Nelson S, Liles B. Meta-analytic review of psychological interventions for children survivors of natural and man-made disasters. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2014; 16(9). Published online. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0462-z. Newman E, Pfefferbaum B, Kirlic N, Tett R, Nelson S, Liles B. Meta-analytic review of psychological interventions for children survivors of natural and man-made disasters. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2014; 16(9). Published online. doi:10.​1007/​s11920-014-0462-z.
8.•
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Sweeton JL, Newman E, Varma V, Nitiéma P, Shaw JA, et al. Child disaster mental health interventions, part I. Techniques, outcomes, and methodological considerations. Disaster Health. 2014;2:46–57. doi:10.4161/dish.27534. This qualitative review describes the techniques used in child disaster mental health interventions and the outcomes used in evaluating the interventions, offers a preliminary assessment of the evidence base, and outlines recommendations for future research.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Pfefferbaum B, Sweeton JL, Newman E, Varma V, Nitiéma P, Shaw JA, et al. Child disaster mental health interventions, part I. Techniques, outcomes, and methodological considerations. Disaster Health. 2014;2:46–57. doi:10.​4161/​dish.​27534. This qualitative review describes the techniques used in child disaster mental health interventions and the outcomes used in evaluating the interventions, offers a preliminary assessment of the evidence base, and outlines recommendations for future research.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
9.•
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Sweeton JL, Newman E, Varma V, Noffsinger MA, Shaw JA, et al. Child disaster mental health interventions, part II. Timing of implementation, delivery settings and providers, and therapeutic approaches. Disaster Health. 2014;2:58–67. doi:10.4161/dish.27535. This descriptive review summarizes the literature to examine current knowledge about the timing of child disaster mental health interventions, the settings and providers for intervention delivery, and therapeutic approaches. Recommendations for future empirical research are outlined.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Pfefferbaum B, Sweeton JL, Newman E, Varma V, Noffsinger MA, Shaw JA, et al. Child disaster mental health interventions, part II. Timing of implementation, delivery settings and providers, and therapeutic approaches. Disaster Health. 2014;2:58–67. doi:10.​4161/​dish.​27535. This descriptive review summarizes the literature to examine current knowledge about the timing of child disaster mental health interventions, the settings and providers for intervention delivery, and therapeutic approaches. Recommendations for future empirical research are outlined.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Tol WA, Barbui C, Galappatti A, Silove D, Betancourt TS, Souza R, et al. Mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings: linking practice and research. The Lancet. 2011;378:1581–91. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61094-5.CrossRef Tol WA, Barbui C, Galappatti A, Silove D, Betancourt TS, Souza R, et al. Mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings: linking practice and research. The Lancet. 2011;378:1581–91. doi:10.​1016/​s0140-6736(11)61094-5.CrossRef
12.••
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Shaw JA. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Committee on Quality Issues (CQI). Practice parameter on disaster preparedness. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr. 2013;52(11):1224–38. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.08.014. This practice parameter describes the disaster mental health system of care and identifies best practices in assessing and managing children in the disaster context.CrossRef Pfefferbaum B, Shaw JA. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Committee on Quality Issues (CQI). Practice parameter on disaster preparedness. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr. 2013;52(11):1224–38. doi:10.​1016/​j.​jaac.​2013.​08.​014. This practice parameter describes the disaster mental health system of care and identifies best practices in assessing and managing children in the disaster context.CrossRef
13.
go back to reference Gold JI, Montano Z, Shields S, Mahrer NE, Vibhakar V, Ybarra T, et al. Pediatric disaster preparedness in the medical setting: integrating mental health. Am J Disaster Med. 2009;4:137–46.PubMed Gold JI, Montano Z, Shields S, Mahrer NE, Vibhakar V, Ybarra T, et al. Pediatric disaster preparedness in the medical setting: integrating mental health. Am J Disaster Med. 2009;4:137–46.PubMed
14.
go back to reference National Commission on Children and Disasters. 2010 Report to the President and Congress. AHRQ Publication No. 10-M037. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Research and Quality; 2010 National Commission on Children and Disasters. 2010 Report to the President and Congress. AHRQ Publication No. 10-M037. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Research and Quality; 2010
15.••
go back to reference North CS, Pfefferbaum B. Mental health response to community disasters. A systematic review. JAMA. 2013;310:507–17. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.107799. This review summarizes the evidence on disaster mental health services and presents a framework for case identification, assessment, and triage.CrossRefPubMed North CS, Pfefferbaum B. Mental health response to community disasters. A systematic review. JAMA. 2013;310:507–17. doi:10.​1001/​jama.​2013.​107799. This review summarizes the evidence on disaster mental health services and presents a framework for case identification, assessment, and triage.CrossRefPubMed
16.
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Flynn BW, Schonfeld D, Brown LM, Jacobs GA, Dodgen D, et al. The integration of mental and behavioral health into disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2012;6:60–6. doi:10.1001/dmp.2012.1.CrossRefPubMed Pfefferbaum B, Flynn BW, Schonfeld D, Brown LM, Jacobs GA, Dodgen D, et al. The integration of mental and behavioral health into disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2012;6:60–6. doi:10.​1001/​dmp.​2012.​1.CrossRefPubMed
19.
go back to reference Ronan KR, Finnis K, Johnston DM. Interventions with youth and families: a prevention and stepped care model. In: Reyes G, Jacobs GA, editors. Handbook of international disaster psychology. Volume 2: practices and programs. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers; 2006. p. 13–35. Ronan KR, Finnis K, Johnston DM. Interventions with youth and families: a prevention and stepped care model. In: Reyes G, Jacobs GA, editors. Handbook of international disaster psychology. Volume 2: practices and programs. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers; 2006. p. 13–35.
20.
go back to reference Pynoos RS, Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ. Children and disasters: public mental health approaches. In: Ursano RJ, Fullerton CS, Weisaeth L, Raphael B, editors. Textbook of disaster psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007. p. 48–68.CrossRef Pynoos RS, Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ. Children and disasters: public mental health approaches. In: Ursano RJ, Fullerton CS, Weisaeth L, Raphael B, editors. Textbook of disaster psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007. p. 48–68.CrossRef
21.
go back to reference Gordon R. An operational classification of disease prevention. In: Steinberg JA, Silverman MM, editors. Preventing mental disorders. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1987. p. 20–6. Gordon R. An operational classification of disease prevention. In: Steinberg JA, Silverman MM, editors. Preventing mental disorders. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1987. p. 20–6.
23.
go back to reference Vernberg EM. Intervention approaches following disasters. In: La Greca AM, Silverman WK, Vernberg EM, Roberts MC, editors. Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2002. p. 55–72.CrossRef Vernberg EM. Intervention approaches following disasters. In: La Greca AM, Silverman WK, Vernberg EM, Roberts MC, editors. Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2002. p. 55–72.CrossRef
26.
go back to reference Brown EJ, McQuaid J, Farina L, Ali R, Winnick-Gelles A. Matching interventions to children’s mental health needs: feasibility and acceptability of a pilot school-based trauma intervention program. Education Treatment Children. 2006;29:257–86. Brown EJ, McQuaid J, Farina L, Ali R, Winnick-Gelles A. Matching interventions to children’s mental health needs: feasibility and acceptability of a pilot school-based trauma intervention program. Education Treatment Children. 2006;29:257–86.
27.
go back to reference Chemtob CM, Nakashima J, Carlson JG. Brief treatment for elementary school children with disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a field study. J Clin Psychol. 2002;58:99–112. doi:10.1002/jclp.1131.CrossRefPubMed Chemtob CM, Nakashima J, Carlson JG. Brief treatment for elementary school children with disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a field study. J Clin Psychol. 2002;58:99–112. doi:10.​1002/​jclp.​1131.CrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Layne CM, Saltzman WR, Poppleton L, Burlingame GM, Pašalić A, Duraković E, et al. Effectiveness of a school-based group psychotherapy program for war-exposed adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;47:1048–62. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31817eecae.CrossRef Layne CM, Saltzman WR, Poppleton L, Burlingame GM, Pašalić A, Duraković E, et al. Effectiveness of a school-based group psychotherapy program for war-exposed adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;47:1048–62. doi:10.​1097/​chi.​0b013e31817eecae​.CrossRef
29.
go back to reference Martin JC, Garriga A, Egea C. Psychological intervention in primary care after earthquakes in Lorca, Spain. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2015;17(1). Published online. doi:10.4088/pcc.14m01691. Martin JC, Garriga A, Egea C. Psychological intervention in primary care after earthquakes in Lorca, Spain. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2015;17(1). Published online. doi:10.​4088/​pcc.​14m01691.
32.•
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, North CS. Assessing children’s disaster reactions and mental health needs: screening and clinical evaluation. Can J Psychiatr. 2013;58:135–42. This paper presents a framework for assessing children’s disaster reactions and mental health needs through screening and clinical evaluation. Pfefferbaum B, North CS. Assessing children’s disaster reactions and mental health needs: screening and clinical evaluation. Can J Psychiatr. 2013;58:135–42. This paper presents a framework for assessing children’s disaster reactions and mental health needs through screening and clinical evaluation.
34.
go back to reference American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
36.
go back to reference Cochrane AL, Holland WW. Validation of screening procedures. Br Med Bull. 1971;27:3–8.PubMed Cochrane AL, Holland WW. Validation of screening procedures. Br Med Bull. 1971;27:3–8.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas CP, Dulcan MK, Schwab-Stone ME. NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-199607000-00012.CrossRefPubMed Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas CP, Dulcan MK, Schwab-Stone ME. NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:28–38. doi:10.​1097/​00004583-199607000-00012.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Weiss DS, Marmar CR. The impact of event scale-revised. In: Wilson J, Keane T, editors. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1997. p. 399–411. Weiss DS, Marmar CR. The impact of event scale-revised. In: Wilson J, Keane T, editors. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1997. p. 399–411.
41.
go back to reference Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Decker KB, Pynoos RS. The University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2004;6:96–100.CrossRefPubMed Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Decker KB, Pynoos RS. The University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2004;6:96–100.CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Achenbach TM. Manual for the Child Behavioral Check-list/4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry; 1991. Achenbach TM. Manual for the Child Behavioral Check-list/4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry; 1991.
43.
go back to reference Reynolds CR, Richmond BO. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. RCMAS Manual. Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA; 1985. Reynolds CR, Richmond BO. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. RCMAS Manual. Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA; 1985.
44.
go back to reference Spielberger CD. Manual for the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1973. Spielberger CD. Manual for the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1973.
46.
go back to reference Kovacs M. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacol Bull. 1985;21:995–8.PubMed Kovacs M. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacol Bull. 1985;21:995–8.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. BASC: Behavior Assessment System for Children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Publishing; 1992. Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. BASC: Behavior Assessment System for Children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Publishing; 1992.
48.
go back to reference Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. BASC-2: Behavior Assessment System for Children. 2nd ed. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Publishing; 2004. Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. BASC-2: Behavior Assessment System for Children. 2nd ed. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Publishing; 2004.
49.
go back to reference Goodman R. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38:581–6.CrossRefPubMed Goodman R. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38:581–6.CrossRefPubMed
50.
go back to reference Pfefferbaum B, Weems CF, Scott BG, Nitiéma P, Noffsinger MA, Pfefferbaum RL, et al. Research methods in child disaster studies: a review of studies generated by the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks; the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami; and Hurricane Katrina. Child Youth Care Forum. 2013;42:285–337. doi:10.1007/s10566-013-9211-4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Pfefferbaum B, Weems CF, Scott BG, Nitiéma P, Noffsinger MA, Pfefferbaum RL, et al. Research methods in child disaster studies: a review of studies generated by the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks; the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami; and Hurricane Katrina. Child Youth Care Forum. 2013;42:285–337. doi:10.​1007/​s10566-013-9211-4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
51.
go back to reference McDermott BM, Lee EM, Judd M, Gibbon P. Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster. Can J Psychiatr. 2005;50:137–43. McDermott BM, Lee EM, Judd M, Gibbon P. Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster. Can J Psychiatr. 2005;50:137–43.
54.
go back to reference Codreanu TA, Celenza A, Jacobs I. Does disaster education of teenagers translate into better survival knowledge, knowledge of skills, and adaptive behavioral change? A systematic literature review. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2014;29:629–42. doi:10.1017/s1049023x14001083.CrossRef Codreanu TA, Celenza A, Jacobs I. Does disaster education of teenagers translate into better survival knowledge, knowledge of skills, and adaptive behavioral change? A systematic literature review. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2014;29:629–42. doi:10.​1017/​s1049023x1400108​3.CrossRef
55.•
go back to reference Johnson VA, Ronan KR, Johnston DM, Peace R. Evaluations of disaster education programs for children: a methodological review. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction. 2014;9:107–23. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.04.001. This review examines the methodology and findings in the literature evaluating child disaster education programs.CrossRef Johnson VA, Ronan KR, Johnston DM, Peace R. Evaluations of disaster education programs for children: a methodological review. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction. 2014;9:107–23. doi:10.​1016/​j.​ijdrr.​2014.​04.​001. This review examines the methodology and findings in the literature evaluating child disaster education programs.CrossRef
56.•
go back to reference Ronan KR, Alisic E, Towers B, Johnson VA, Johnston DM. Disaster preparedness for children and families: a critical review. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015;17(7). Published online. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0589-6. This review examines the literature on disaster preparedness for children and families. Ronan KR, Alisic E, Towers B, Johnson VA, Johnston DM. Disaster preparedness for children and families: a critical review. Curr Psychiatr Rep. 2015;17(7). Published online. doi:10.​1007/​s11920-015-0589-6. This review examines the literature on disaster preparedness for children and families.
59.
go back to reference Feeny NC, Foa EB, Treatwell KRH, March J. Posttraumatic stress disorder in youth: a critical review of the cognitive and behavioral treatment outcome literature. Prof Psychol Res Pract. 2004;35:466–76. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.5.466.CrossRef Feeny NC, Foa EB, Treatwell KRH, March J. Posttraumatic stress disorder in youth: a critical review of the cognitive and behavioral treatment outcome literature. Prof Psychol Res Pract. 2004;35:466–76. doi:10.​1037/​0735-7028.​35.​5.​466.CrossRef
60.•
go back to reference Gillies D, Taylor F, Gray C, O’Brien L, D’Abrew N. Psychological therapies for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents (review). Evidence-based child health. A Cochrane Review Journal. 2013;8:1004–16. doi:10.1002/ebch.1916. This Cochrane Review assesses randomized controlled trials examining therapies for the treatment of PTSD in children. Gillies D, Taylor F, Gray C, O’Brien L, D’Abrew N. Psychological therapies for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents (review). Evidence-based child health. A Cochrane Review Journal. 2013;8:1004–16. doi:10.​1002/​ebch.​1916. This Cochrane Review assesses randomized controlled trials examining therapies for the treatment of PTSD in children.
62.
go back to reference Silverman WK, Ortiz CD, Viswesvaran C, Burns BJ, Kolko DJ, Putnam FW, et al. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2008;37:156–83. doi:10.1080/15374410701818293.CrossRefPubMed Silverman WK, Ortiz CD, Viswesvaran C, Burns BJ, Kolko DJ, Putnam FW, et al. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2008;37:156–83. doi:10.​1080/​1537441070181829​3.CrossRefPubMed
63.
go back to reference Jaycox LH, Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Walker DW, Langley AK, Gegenheimer KL, et al. Children’s mental health care following Hurricane Katrina: a field trial of trauma-focused psychotherapies. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23:223–31. doi:10.1002/jts.20518.PubMedCentralPubMed Jaycox LH, Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Walker DW, Langley AK, Gegenheimer KL, et al. Children’s mental health care following Hurricane Katrina: a field trial of trauma-focused psychotherapies. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23:223–31. doi:10.​1002/​jts.​20518.PubMedCentralPubMed
Metadata
Title
Child Disaster Mental Health Services: a Review of the System of Care, Assessment Approaches, and Evidence Base for Intervention
Authors
Betty Pfefferbaum
Carol S. North
Publication date
01-01-2016
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Psychiatry Reports / Issue 1/2016
Print ISSN: 1523-3812
Electronic ISSN: 1535-1645
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0647-0

Other articles of this Issue 1/2016

Current Psychiatry Reports 1/2016 Go to the issue

Anxiety Disorders (A Pelissolo, Section Editor)

Withdrawing Benzodiazepines in Patients With Anxiety Disorders

Sleep Disorders (P Gehrman, Section Editor)

Sleep Disturbances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Eating Disorders (C Grilo, Section Editor)

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anorexia Nervosa: An Update