Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Critical Care 5/2007

01-12-2007 | Review

Diagnosis and treatment of severe sepsis

Authors: Yann-Erick Claessens, Jean-François Dhainaut

Published in: Critical Care | Special Issue 5/2007

Login to get access

Abstract

The burden of infection in industrialized countries has prompted considerable effort to improve the outcomes of patients with sepsis. This has been formalized through the Surviving Sepsis Campaign 'bundles', derived from the recommendations of 11 professional societies, which have promoted global improvement in those practices whose primary goal it is to reduce sepsis-related death. However, difficulties remain in implementing all of the procedures recommended by the experts, despite the apparent pragmatism of those procedures. We summarize the main proposals made by the Surviving Sepsis Campaign and focus on the difficulties associated with making a proper diagnosis and supplying adequate treatment promptly to septic patients.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR: Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 1303-1310. 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002.PubMed Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR: Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 1303-1310. 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002.PubMed
2.
go back to reference Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M: The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003, 348: 1546-1554. 10.1056/NEJMoa022139.PubMed Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M: The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003, 348: 1546-1554. 10.1056/NEJMoa022139.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Strehlow MC, Emond SD, Shapiro NI, Pelletier AJ, Camargo CA: National study of emergency department visits for sepsis, 1992 to 2001. Ann Emerg Med. 2006, 48: 326-331. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.05.003.PubMed Strehlow MC, Emond SD, Shapiro NI, Pelletier AJ, Camargo CA: National study of emergency department visits for sepsis, 1992 to 2001. Ann Emerg Med. 2006, 48: 326-331. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.05.003.PubMed
4.
go back to reference Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, Gea-Banacloche J, Keh D, Marshall JC, Parker MM, Surviving Sepsis Campaign Management Guidelines Committee, et al: Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 858-873. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000117317.18092.E4.PubMed Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, Gea-Banacloche J, Keh D, Marshall JC, Parker MM, Surviving Sepsis Campaign Management Guidelines Committee, et al: Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 858-873. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000117317.18092.E4.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Bone RC: Sepsis, the sepsis syndrome, multiorgan failure: a plea for comparable definitions. Ann Intern Med. 1991, 114: 332-333.PubMed Bone RC: Sepsis, the sepsis syndrome, multiorgan failure: a plea for comparable definitions. Ann Intern Med. 1991, 114: 332-333.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C, Chevret S, Antonelli M, Goodman SV, Martin C, Moreno R, Ochagavia AR, Palazzo M, Werdan K, European Sepsis Study Group, et al: Systemic inflammatory response and progression to severe sepsis in critically ill infected patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 461-468. 10.1164/rccm.200403-324OC.PubMed Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C, Chevret S, Antonelli M, Goodman SV, Martin C, Moreno R, Ochagavia AR, Palazzo M, Werdan K, European Sepsis Study Group, et al: Systemic inflammatory response and progression to severe sepsis in critically ill infected patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 461-468. 10.1164/rccm.200403-324OC.PubMed
7.
go back to reference Dremsizov T, Clermont G, Kellum JA, Kalassian KG, Fine MJ, Angus DC: Severe sepsis in community-acquired pneumonia: when does it happen, and do systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria help predict course?. Chest. 2006, 129: 968-978. 10.1378/chest.129.4.968.PubMed Dremsizov T, Clermont G, Kellum JA, Kalassian KG, Fine MJ, Angus DC: Severe sepsis in community-acquired pneumonia: when does it happen, and do systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria help predict course?. Chest. 2006, 129: 968-978. 10.1378/chest.129.4.968.PubMed
8.
go back to reference Shapiro NI, Wolfe RE, Moore RB, Smith E, Burdick E, Bates DW: Mortality in Emergency Department Sepsis (MEDS) score: a prospectively derived and validated clinical prediction rule. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31: 670-675. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000054867.01688.D1.PubMed Shapiro NI, Wolfe RE, Moore RB, Smith E, Burdick E, Bates DW: Mortality in Emergency Department Sepsis (MEDS) score: a prospectively derived and validated clinical prediction rule. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31: 670-675. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000054867.01688.D1.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Shapiro NI, Howell MD, Talmor D, Donnino M, Ngo L, Bates DW: Mortality in Emergency Department Sepsis (MEDS) score predicts 1-year mortality. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 192-198. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251508.12555.3E.PubMed Shapiro NI, Howell MD, Talmor D, Donnino M, Ngo L, Bates DW: Mortality in Emergency Department Sepsis (MEDS) score predicts 1-year mortality. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 192-198. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251508.12555.3E.PubMed
10.
go back to reference Carlet J: Early goal-directed therapy of septic shock in the emergency room: who could honestly remain skeptical?. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 2842-2843. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000242911.79783.66.PubMed Carlet J: Early goal-directed therapy of septic shock in the emergency room: who could honestly remain skeptical?. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 2842-2843. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000242911.79783.66.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld LA, Singer DE, Coley CM, Marrie TJ, Kapoor WN: A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997, 336: 243-250. 10.1056/NEJM199701233360402.PubMed Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld LA, Singer DE, Coley CM, Marrie TJ, Kapoor WN: A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997, 336: 243-250. 10.1056/NEJM199701233360402.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Renaud B, Coma E, Labarere J, Hayon J, Roy PM, Boureaux H, Moritz F, Cibien JF, Guerin T, Carre E, Pneumocom Study Investigators, et al: Routine use of the Pneumonia Severity Index for guiding the site-of-treatment decision of patients with pneumonia in the emergency department: a multicenter, prospective, observational, controlled cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44: 41-49. 10.1086/509331.PubMed Renaud B, Coma E, Labarere J, Hayon J, Roy PM, Boureaux H, Moritz F, Cibien JF, Guerin T, Carre E, Pneumocom Study Investigators, et al: Routine use of the Pneumonia Severity Index for guiding the site-of-treatment decision of patients with pneumonia in the emergency department: a multicenter, prospective, observational, controlled cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44: 41-49. 10.1086/509331.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Carratala J, Fernandez-Sabe N, Ortega L, Castellsague X, Roson B, Dorca J, Fernandez-Aguera A, Verdaguer R, Martinez J, Manresa F, et al: Outpatient care compared with hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial in low-risk patients. Ann Intern Med. 2005, 142: 165-172.PubMed Carratala J, Fernandez-Sabe N, Ortega L, Castellsague X, Roson B, Dorca J, Fernandez-Aguera A, Verdaguer R, Martinez J, Manresa F, et al: Outpatient care compared with hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial in low-risk patients. Ann Intern Med. 2005, 142: 165-172.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Aujesky D, Stone RA, Obrosky DS, Yealy DM, Auble TE, Meehan TP, Graff LG, Fine JM, Fine MJ: Using randomized controlled trial data, the agreement between retrospectively and prospectively collected data comprising the pneumonia severity index was substantial. J Clin Epidemiol. 2005, 58: 357-363. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2004.08.011.PubMed Aujesky D, Stone RA, Obrosky DS, Yealy DM, Auble TE, Meehan TP, Graff LG, Fine JM, Fine MJ: Using randomized controlled trial data, the agreement between retrospectively and prospectively collected data comprising the pneumonia severity index was substantial. J Clin Epidemiol. 2005, 58: 357-363. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2004.08.011.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Aujesky D, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Stone RA, Obrosky DS, Meehan TP, Graff LG, Fine JM, Fine MJ: Prospective comparison of three validated prediction rules for prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2005, 118: 384-392. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.01.006.PubMed Aujesky D, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Stone RA, Obrosky DS, Meehan TP, Graff LG, Fine JM, Fine MJ: Prospective comparison of three validated prediction rules for prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2005, 118: 384-392. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.01.006.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Cady LD, Weil MH, Afifi AA, Michaels SF, Liu VY, Shubin H: Quantitation of severity of critical illness with special reference to blood lactate. Crit Care Med. 1973, 1: 75-80. 10.1097/00003246-197303000-00003.PubMed Cady LD, Weil MH, Afifi AA, Michaels SF, Liu VY, Shubin H: Quantitation of severity of critical illness with special reference to blood lactate. Crit Care Med. 1973, 1: 75-80. 10.1097/00003246-197303000-00003.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, Schein RM, Sibbald WJ: Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest. 1992, 101: 1644-1655. 10.1378/chest.101.6.1644.PubMed Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, Schein RM, Sibbald WJ: Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest. 1992, 101: 1644-1655. 10.1378/chest.101.6.1644.PubMed
18.
go back to reference Shapiro NI, Howell MD, Talmor D, Nathanson LA, Lisbon A, Wolfe RE, Weiss JW: Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in emergency department patients with infection. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 45: 524-528. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.12.006.PubMed Shapiro NI, Howell MD, Talmor D, Nathanson LA, Lisbon A, Wolfe RE, Weiss JW: Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in emergency department patients with infection. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 45: 524-528. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.12.006.PubMed
19.
go back to reference Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Knoblich BP, Jacobsen G, Muzzin A, Ressler JA, Tomlanovich MC: Early lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 1637-1642. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000132904.35713.A7.PubMed Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Knoblich BP, Jacobsen G, Muzzin A, Ressler JA, Tomlanovich MC: Early lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 1637-1642. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000132904.35713.A7.PubMed
20.
go back to reference Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Chansky ME, Arnold RC, Schorr C, Milcarek B, Hollenberg SM, Parrillo JE: Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in patients with infection. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33: 970-977. 10.1007/s00134-007-0563-9.PubMed Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Chansky ME, Arnold RC, Schorr C, Milcarek B, Hollenberg SM, Parrillo JE: Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in patients with infection. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33: 970-977. 10.1007/s00134-007-0563-9.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Howell MD, Donnino M, Clardy P, Talmor D, Shapiro NI: Occult hypoperfusion and mortality in patients with suspected infection. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33: 1892-1899. 10.1007/s00134-007-0680-5.PubMed Howell MD, Donnino M, Clardy P, Talmor D, Shapiro NI: Occult hypoperfusion and mortality in patients with suspected infection. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33: 1892-1899. 10.1007/s00134-007-0680-5.PubMed
22.
go back to reference Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, Saint-Louis P, Lacroix J: Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004, 39: 206-217. 10.1086/421997.PubMed Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, Saint-Louis P, Lacroix J: Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004, 39: 206-217. 10.1086/421997.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Harbarth S, Holeckova K, Froidevaux C, Pittet D, Ricou B, Grau GE, Vadas L, Pugin J, Geneva Sepsis Network: Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001, 164: 396-402.PubMed Harbarth S, Holeckova K, Froidevaux C, Pittet D, Ricou B, Grau GE, Vadas L, Pugin J, Geneva Sepsis Network: Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001, 164: 396-402.PubMed
24.
go back to reference Hausfater P, Garric S, Ayed SB, Rosenheim M, Bernard M, Riou B: Usefulness of procalcitonin as a marker of systemic infection in emergency department patients: a prospective study. Clin Infect Dis. 2002, 34: 895-901. 10.1086/339198.PubMed Hausfater P, Garric S, Ayed SB, Rosenheim M, Bernard M, Riou B: Usefulness of procalcitonin as a marker of systemic infection in emergency department patients: a prospective study. Clin Infect Dis. 2002, 34: 895-901. 10.1086/339198.PubMed
25.
go back to reference Houck PM, Bratzler DW, Nsa W, Ma A, Bartlett JG: Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for Medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 2004, 164: 637-644. 10.1001/archinte.164.6.637.PubMed Houck PM, Bratzler DW, Nsa W, Ma A, Bartlett JG: Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for Medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 2004, 164: 637-644. 10.1001/archinte.164.6.637.PubMed
26.
go back to reference Metersky ML, Sweeney TA, Getzow MB, Siddiqui F, Nsa W, Bratzler DW: Antibiotic timing and diagnostic uncertainty in Medicare patients with pneumonia: is it reasonable to expect all patients to receive antibiotics within 4 hours?. Chest. 2006, 130: 16-21. 10.1378/chest.130.1.16.PubMed Metersky ML, Sweeney TA, Getzow MB, Siddiqui F, Nsa W, Bratzler DW: Antibiotic timing and diagnostic uncertainty in Medicare patients with pneumonia: is it reasonable to expect all patients to receive antibiotics within 4 hours?. Chest. 2006, 130: 16-21. 10.1378/chest.130.1.16.PubMed
27.
go back to reference Proulx N, Frechette D, Toye B, Chan J, Kravcik S: Delays in the administration of antibiotics are associated with mortality from adult acute bacterial meningitis. QJM. 2005, 98: 291-298. 10.1093/qjmed/hci047.PubMed Proulx N, Frechette D, Toye B, Chan J, Kravcik S: Delays in the administration of antibiotics are associated with mortality from adult acute bacterial meningitis. QJM. 2005, 98: 291-298. 10.1093/qjmed/hci047.PubMed
28.
go back to reference Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002, 122: 262-268. 10.1378/chest.122.1.262.PubMed Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002, 122: 262-268. 10.1378/chest.122.1.262.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Mathevon T, Souweine B, Traore O, Aublet B, Caillaud D: ICU-acquired nosocomial infection: Impact of delay of adequate antibiotic treatment. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002, 34: 831-835. 10.1080/0036554021000026934.PubMed Mathevon T, Souweine B, Traore O, Aublet B, Caillaud D: ICU-acquired nosocomial infection: Impact of delay of adequate antibiotic treatment. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002, 34: 831-835. 10.1080/0036554021000026934.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Miner JR, Heegaard W, Mapes A, Biros M: Presentation, time to antibiotics, and mortality of patients with bacterial meningitis at an urban county medical center. J Emerg Med. 2001, 21: 387-392. 10.1016/S0736-4679(01)00407-3.PubMed Miner JR, Heegaard W, Mapes A, Biros M: Presentation, time to antibiotics, and mortality of patients with bacterial meningitis at an urban county medical center. J Emerg Med. 2001, 21: 387-392. 10.1016/S0736-4679(01)00407-3.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Kang CI, Kim SH, Kim HB, Park SW, Choe YJ, Oh MD, Kim EC, Choe KW: Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: risk factors for mortality and influence of delayed receipt of effective antimicrobial therapy on clinical outcome. Clin Infect Dis. 2003, 37: 745-751. 10.1086/377200.PubMed Kang CI, Kim SH, Kim HB, Park SW, Choe YJ, Oh MD, Kim EC, Choe KW: Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: risk factors for mortality and influence of delayed receipt of effective antimicrobial therapy on clinical outcome. Clin Infect Dis. 2003, 37: 745-751. 10.1086/377200.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Lodise TP, McKinnon PS, Swiderski L, Ryback MJ: Outcomes analysis of delayed antibiotic treatment for hospital-acquired Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2003, 36: 1418-1423. 10.1086/375057.PubMed Lodise TP, McKinnon PS, Swiderski L, Ryback MJ: Outcomes analysis of delayed antibiotic treatment for hospital-acquired Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2003, 36: 1418-1423. 10.1086/375057.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Larche J, Azoulay E, Fieux F, Mesnard L, Moreau D, Thiery G, Darmon M, Le Gall JR, Schlemmer B: Improved survival of critically ill cancer patients with septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29: 1688-1695. 10.1007/s00134-003-1957-y.PubMed Larche J, Azoulay E, Fieux F, Mesnard L, Moreau D, Thiery G, Darmon M, Le Gall JR, Schlemmer B: Improved survival of critically ill cancer patients with septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29: 1688-1695. 10.1007/s00134-003-1957-y.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, Light B, Parrillo JE, Sharma S, Suppes R, Feinstein D, Zanotti S, Taiberg L, et al: Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 1589-1596. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9.PubMed Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, Light B, Parrillo JE, Sharma S, Suppes R, Feinstein D, Zanotti S, Taiberg L, et al: Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 1589-1596. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9.PubMed
35.
go back to reference Bochud PY, Bonten M, Marchetti O, Calandra T: Antimicrobial therapy for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S495-S512. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000143118.41100.14.PubMed Bochud PY, Bonten M, Marchetti O, Calandra T: Antimicrobial therapy for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S495-S512. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000143118.41100.14.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Girard TD, Opal SM, Ely EW: Insights into severe sepsis in older patients: from epidemiology to evidence-based management. Clin Infect Dis. 2005, 40: 719-727. 10.1086/427876.PubMed Girard TD, Opal SM, Ely EW: Insights into severe sepsis in older patients: from epidemiology to evidence-based management. Clin Infect Dis. 2005, 40: 719-727. 10.1086/427876.PubMed
37.
go back to reference Groeneveld ABJ, Thijs LG: Diagnosis: from clinical signs to haemodynamic evaluation. Septic Shock. Edited by: Dhainaut JF, Thijs LG, Park G. 2000, London, UK: WB Saunders, 355-386. Groeneveld ABJ, Thijs LG: Diagnosis: from clinical signs to haemodynamic evaluation. Septic Shock. Edited by: Dhainaut JF, Thijs LG, Park G. 2000, London, UK: WB Saunders, 355-386.
38.
go back to reference Weinstein MP, Towns ML, Quartey SM, Mirrett S, Reimer LG, Parmigiani G, Reller LB: The clinical significance of positive blood cultures in the 1990s: a prospective comprehensive evaluation of the microbiology, epidemiology, and outcome of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 1997, 24: 584-602.PubMed Weinstein MP, Towns ML, Quartey SM, Mirrett S, Reimer LG, Parmigiani G, Reller LB: The clinical significance of positive blood cultures in the 1990s: a prospective comprehensive evaluation of the microbiology, epidemiology, and outcome of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 1997, 24: 584-602.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Mortensen EM, Restrepo MI, Anzueto A, Pugh JA: Antibiotic therapy and 48-hour mortality for patients with pneumonia. Am J Med. 2006, 119: 859-864. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.04.017.PubMed Mortensen EM, Restrepo MI, Anzueto A, Pugh JA: Antibiotic therapy and 48-hour mortality for patients with pneumonia. Am J Med. 2006, 119: 859-864. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.04.017.PubMed
40.
go back to reference Butler JC, Bosshardt SC, Phelan M, Moroney SM, Tondella ML, Farley MM, Schuchat A, Fields BS: Classical and latent class analysis evaluation of sputum polymerase chain reaction and urine antigen testing for diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. J Infect Dis. 2003, 187: 1416-1423. 10.1086/374623.PubMed Butler JC, Bosshardt SC, Phelan M, Moroney SM, Tondella ML, Farley MM, Schuchat A, Fields BS: Classical and latent class analysis evaluation of sputum polymerase chain reaction and urine antigen testing for diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. J Infect Dis. 2003, 187: 1416-1423. 10.1086/374623.PubMed
41.
go back to reference Kistler A, Avila PC, Rouskin S, Wang D, Ward T, Yagi S, Schnurr D, Ganem D, DeRisi JL, Boushey HA: Pan-viral screening of respiratory tract infections in adults with and without asthma reveals unexpected human coronavirus and human rhinovirus diversity. J Infect Dis. 2007, 196: 817-825. 10.1086/520816.PubMed Kistler A, Avila PC, Rouskin S, Wang D, Ward T, Yagi S, Schnurr D, Ganem D, DeRisi JL, Boushey HA: Pan-viral screening of respiratory tract infections in adults with and without asthma reveals unexpected human coronavirus and human rhinovirus diversity. J Infect Dis. 2007, 196: 817-825. 10.1086/520816.PubMed
42.
go back to reference Vincent JL, Gerlach H: Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S451-S454. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142984.44321.A4.PubMed Vincent JL, Gerlach H: Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S451-S454. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142984.44321.A4.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Cochrane Injuries Group Albumin Reviewers: Human albumin administration in critically ill patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 1998, 31: 235-240. Cochrane Injuries Group Albumin Reviewers: Human albumin administration in critically ill patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 1998, 31: 235-240.
44.
go back to reference Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R, SAFE Study Investigators: A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350: 2247-2256. 10.1056/NEJMoa040232.PubMed Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R, SAFE Study Investigators: A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350: 2247-2256. 10.1056/NEJMoa040232.PubMed
45.
go back to reference Guidet B, Mosqueda GJ, Priol G, Aegerter P: The COASST study: cost-effectiveness of albumin in severe sepsis and septic shock. J Crit Care. 2007, 22: 197-203. 10.1016/j.jcrc.2006.11.005.PubMed Guidet B, Mosqueda GJ, Priol G, Aegerter P: The COASST study: cost-effectiveness of albumin in severe sepsis and septic shock. J Crit Care. 2007, 22: 197-203. 10.1016/j.jcrc.2006.11.005.PubMed
46.
go back to reference Hebert PC, Wells G, Blajchman MA, Marshall J, Martin C, Pagliarello G, Tweeddale M, Schweitzer I, Yetisir E: A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1999, 340: 409-417. 10.1056/NEJM199902113400601.PubMed Hebert PC, Wells G, Blajchman MA, Marshall J, Martin C, Pagliarello G, Tweeddale M, Schweitzer I, Yetisir E: A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1999, 340: 409-417. 10.1056/NEJM199902113400601.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Silliman CC, Ambruso DR, Boshkov LK: Transfusion-related acute lung injury. Blood. 2005, 105: 2266-2273. 10.1182/blood-2004-07-2929.PubMed Silliman CC, Ambruso DR, Boshkov LK: Transfusion-related acute lung injury. Blood. 2005, 105: 2266-2273. 10.1182/blood-2004-07-2929.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, Ressler J, Muzzin A, Knoblich B, Peterson E, Tomlanovich M, Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group: Early goal directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345: 1368-1377. 10.1056/NEJMoa010307.PubMed Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, Ressler J, Muzzin A, Knoblich B, Peterson E, Tomlanovich M, Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group: Early goal directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345: 1368-1377. 10.1056/NEJMoa010307.PubMed
49.
go back to reference Alderson P, Schierhout G, Roberts I, Bunn F: Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004, 4: CD000567-PubMed Alderson P, Schierhout G, Roberts I, Bunn F: Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004, 4: CD000567-PubMed
50.
go back to reference Schierhout G, Roberts I: Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomised trials. BMJ. 1998, 316: 961-964.PubMedCentralPubMed Schierhout G, Roberts I: Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomised trials. BMJ. 1998, 316: 961-964.PubMedCentralPubMed
51.
go back to reference Schortgen F, Lacherade JC, Bruneel F, Cattaneo I, Hemery F, Lemaire F, Brochard L: Effects of hydroxyethylstarch and gelatin on renal function in severe sepsis: a multicentre randomised study. Lancet. 2001, 357: 911-916. 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04211-2.PubMed Schortgen F, Lacherade JC, Bruneel F, Cattaneo I, Hemery F, Lemaire F, Brochard L: Effects of hydroxyethylstarch and gelatin on renal function in severe sepsis: a multicentre randomised study. Lancet. 2001, 357: 911-916. 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04211-2.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Reinhart K, Bloos F, Engel C, on behalf the German Competence Network Sepsis: Hydroxyethyl starch and Ringer's lactate for fluid resuscitation in patients with severe sepsis: results from the VISEP study [abstract 0818]. Intens Care Med. 2006, S1: 213- Reinhart K, Bloos F, Engel C, on behalf the German Competence Network Sepsis: Hydroxyethyl starch and Ringer's lactate for fluid resuscitation in patients with severe sepsis: results from the VISEP study [abstract 0818]. Intens Care Med. 2006, S1: 213-
53.
go back to reference Zander R, Boldt J, Engelmann L, Mertzlufft F, Sirtl C, Stuttmann R: The design of the VISEP trial. Critical appraisal [in German]. Anaesthesist. 2007, 56: 71-77. 10.1007/s00101-006-1122-4.PubMed Zander R, Boldt J, Engelmann L, Mertzlufft F, Sirtl C, Stuttmann R: The design of the VISEP trial. Critical appraisal [in German]. Anaesthesist. 2007, 56: 71-77. 10.1007/s00101-006-1122-4.PubMed
54.
go back to reference Beal RB, Hollenberg SM, Vincent JL, Parrillo JE: Vasopressor and inotropic support in septic shock: an evidence based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32 (suppl): S455-S465. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142909.86238.B1. Beal RB, Hollenberg SM, Vincent JL, Parrillo JE: Vasopressor and inotropic support in septic shock: an evidence based review. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32 (suppl): S455-S465. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142909.86238.B1.
55.
go back to reference Hannemann L, Reinhart K, Grenzer O, Meier-Hellmann A, Bredle DL: Comparison of dopamine to dobutamine and norepinephrine for oxygen delivery and uptake in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 1995, 23: 1962-1970. 10.1097/00003246-199512000-00004.PubMed Hannemann L, Reinhart K, Grenzer O, Meier-Hellmann A, Bredle DL: Comparison of dopamine to dobutamine and norepinephrine for oxygen delivery and uptake in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 1995, 23: 1962-1970. 10.1097/00003246-199512000-00004.PubMed
56.
go back to reference Jakob SM, Ruokonen E, Takala J: Effects of dopamine on systemic and regional blood flow and metabolism in septic and cardiac surgery patients. Shock. 2002, 18: 8-13. 10.1097/00024382-200207000-00002.PubMed Jakob SM, Ruokonen E, Takala J: Effects of dopamine on systemic and regional blood flow and metabolism in septic and cardiac surgery patients. Shock. 2002, 18: 8-13. 10.1097/00024382-200207000-00002.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Day NP, Phu NH, Bethell DP, Mai NT, Chau TT, Hien TT, White NJ: The effects of dopamine and adrenaline infusions on acid-base balance and systemic haemodynamics in severe infection. Lancet. 1996, 348: 219-223. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09096-4.PubMed Day NP, Phu NH, Bethell DP, Mai NT, Chau TT, Hien TT, White NJ: The effects of dopamine and adrenaline infusions on acid-base balance and systemic haemodynamics in severe infection. Lancet. 1996, 348: 219-223. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09096-4.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Levy MM, Macias WL, Vincent JL, Russell JA, Silva E, Trzaskoma B, Williams MD: Early changes in organ function predict eventual survival in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33: 2194-2201. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000182798.39709.84.PubMed Levy MM, Macias WL, Vincent JL, Russell JA, Silva E, Trzaskoma B, Williams MD: Early changes in organ function predict eventual survival in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33: 2194-2201. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000182798.39709.84.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Annane D, Vignon P, Renault A, Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Martin C, Troche G, Ricard JD, Nitenberg G, Papazian L, CATS Study Group, et al: Norepinephrine plus dobutamine versus epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007, 370: 676-684. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61344-0.PubMed Annane D, Vignon P, Renault A, Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Martin C, Troche G, Ricard JD, Nitenberg G, Papazian L, CATS Study Group, et al: Norepinephrine plus dobutamine versus epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007, 370: 676-684. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61344-0.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Delmas A, Leone M, Rousseau S, Albanese J, Martin C: Vasopressin and terlipressin in septic shock patients. Crit Care. 2005, 9: 212-222. 10.1186/cc2945.PubMedCentralPubMed Delmas A, Leone M, Rousseau S, Albanese J, Martin C: Vasopressin and terlipressin in septic shock patients. Crit Care. 2005, 9: 212-222. 10.1186/cc2945.PubMedCentralPubMed
61.
go back to reference Barrett LK, Singer M, Clapp LH: Vasopressin: mechanisms of action on the vasculature in health and in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 33-40. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251127.45385.CD.PubMed Barrett LK, Singer M, Clapp LH: Vasopressin: mechanisms of action on the vasculature in health and in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 33-40. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251127.45385.CD.PubMed
62.
go back to reference Sebat F, Johnson D, Musthafa AA, Watnik M, Moore S, Henry K, Saari M: A multidisciplinary community hospital program for early and rapid resuscitation of shock in nontrauma patients. Chest. 2005, 127: 1729-1743. 10.1378/chest.127.5.1729.PubMed Sebat F, Johnson D, Musthafa AA, Watnik M, Moore S, Henry K, Saari M: A multidisciplinary community hospital program for early and rapid resuscitation of shock in nontrauma patients. Chest. 2005, 127: 1729-1743. 10.1378/chest.127.5.1729.PubMed
63.
go back to reference Task Force of the American College of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine: Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1999, 27: 639-660. 10.1097/00003246-199903000-00049. Task Force of the American College of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine: Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1999, 27: 639-660. 10.1097/00003246-199903000-00049.
64.
go back to reference Nguyen HB, Corbett SW, Clark RT, Cho T, Wittlake WA: Improving the uniformity of care with a sepsis bundle in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 46: S83-10.1016/j.annemergmed.2005.06.308. Nguyen HB, Corbett SW, Clark RT, Cho T, Wittlake WA: Improving the uniformity of care with a sepsis bundle in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 46: S83-10.1016/j.annemergmed.2005.06.308.
65.
go back to reference Gaieski D, McCoy J, Zeserson E, Chase M, Goyal M: Mortality benefit after implementation of early goal directed therapy protocol for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 46: S4-10.1016/j.annemergmed.2005.06.020. Gaieski D, McCoy J, Zeserson E, Chase M, Goyal M: Mortality benefit after implementation of early goal directed therapy protocol for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. Ann Emerg Med. 2005, 46: S4-10.1016/j.annemergmed.2005.06.020.
66.
go back to reference Verceles A, Schwarcz RM, Birnbaum P, Mannam P, Patrick H: S.E.P.S.I.S: sepsis education plus successful implementation and sustainability in the absence of a rapid response team [abstract]. Chest. 2005, 128: S181-S182. Verceles A, Schwarcz RM, Birnbaum P, Mannam P, Patrick H: S.E.P.S.I.S: sepsis education plus successful implementation and sustainability in the absence of a rapid response team [abstract]. Chest. 2005, 128: S181-S182.
67.
go back to reference Gao F, Melody T, Daniels DF, Giles S, Fox S: The impact of compliance with 6-hour and 24-hour sepsis bundles on hospital mortality in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2005, 9: R764-R770. 10.1186/cc3909.PubMedCentralPubMed Gao F, Melody T, Daniels DF, Giles S, Fox S: The impact of compliance with 6-hour and 24-hour sepsis bundles on hospital mortality in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2005, 9: R764-R770. 10.1186/cc3909.PubMedCentralPubMed
68.
go back to reference Kortgen A, Niederprum P, Bauer M: Implementation of an evidence-based 'standard operating procedure' and outcome in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 943-949. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206112.32673.D4.PubMed Kortgen A, Niederprum P, Bauer M: Implementation of an evidence-based 'standard operating procedure' and outcome in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 943-949. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206112.32673.D4.PubMed
69.
go back to reference Armstrong R, Salfen SJ: Results of implementing a rapid response team approach in treatment of shock in a community hospital [abstract]. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; 6–9 October 2005; San Francisco, California. 2005, Arlington, Virginia: Infectious Diseases Society of America, 154- Armstrong R, Salfen SJ: Results of implementing a rapid response team approach in treatment of shock in a community hospital [abstract]. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; 6–9 October 2005; San Francisco, California. 2005, Arlington, Virginia: Infectious Diseases Society of America, 154-
70.
go back to reference Micek ST, Roubinian N, Heuring T, Bode M, Williams J, Harrison C, Murphy T, Prentice D, Ruoff BE, Kollef MH: Before-after study of a standardized hospital order set for the management of septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 2707-2713. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000241151.25426.D7.PubMed Micek ST, Roubinian N, Heuring T, Bode M, Williams J, Harrison C, Murphy T, Prentice D, Ruoff BE, Kollef MH: Before-after study of a standardized hospital order set for the management of septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 2707-2713. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000241151.25426.D7.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Rogove H, Pyle K: Collaboration for instituting the surviving sepsis campaign in a community hospital [abstract]. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33 (suppl): 110S-10.1097/00003246-200512002-00107. Rogove H, Pyle K: Collaboration for instituting the surviving sepsis campaign in a community hospital [abstract]. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33 (suppl): 110S-10.1097/00003246-200512002-00107.
72.
go back to reference Stenstrom R, Hollohan K, Nebre R, MacRedmond R, Grafstein E, Dodek P, Innes G, Hunte G, Harris D, Westman J, et al: Impact of a sepsis protocol for the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock in the emergency department [abstract]. Can J Emerg Med. 2006, 8: S16- Stenstrom R, Hollohan K, Nebre R, MacRedmond R, Grafstein E, Dodek P, Innes G, Hunte G, Harris D, Westman J, et al: Impact of a sepsis protocol for the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock in the emergency department [abstract]. Can J Emerg Med. 2006, 8: S16-
73.
go back to reference Otero RM, Nguyen HB, Huang DT, Gaieski DF, Goyal M, Gunnerson KJ, Trzeciak S, Sherwin R, Holthaus CV, Osborn T, et al: Early goal-directed therapy in severe sepsis and septic shock revisited: concepts, controversies, and contemporary findings. Chest. 2006, 130: 1579-1595. 10.1378/chest.130.5.1579.PubMed Otero RM, Nguyen HB, Huang DT, Gaieski DF, Goyal M, Gunnerson KJ, Trzeciak S, Sherwin R, Holthaus CV, Osborn T, et al: Early goal-directed therapy in severe sepsis and septic shock revisited: concepts, controversies, and contemporary findings. Chest. 2006, 130: 1579-1595. 10.1378/chest.130.5.1579.PubMed
74.
go back to reference Yu DT, Black E, Sands KE, Schwartz JS, Hibberd PL, Graman PS, Lanken PN, Kahn KL, Snydman DR, Parsonnet J, Academic Medical Center Consortium Sepsis Project Working Group, et al: Severe sepsis: variation in resource and therapeutic modality use among academic centers. Crit Care. 2003, 7: R24-R34. 10.1186/cc2171.PubMedCentralPubMed Yu DT, Black E, Sands KE, Schwartz JS, Hibberd PL, Graman PS, Lanken PN, Kahn KL, Snydman DR, Parsonnet J, Academic Medical Center Consortium Sepsis Project Working Group, et al: Severe sepsis: variation in resource and therapeutic modality use among academic centers. Crit Care. 2003, 7: R24-R34. 10.1186/cc2171.PubMedCentralPubMed
75.
go back to reference Angus DC, Shorr AF, White A, Dremsizov TT, Schmitz RJ, Kelley MA, Committee on Manpower for Pulmonary and Critical Care Societies (COMPACCS): Critical care delivery in the United States: distribution of services and compliance with Leapfrog recommendations. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 1016-1024. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206105.05626.15.PubMed Angus DC, Shorr AF, White A, Dremsizov TT, Schmitz RJ, Kelley MA, Committee on Manpower for Pulmonary and Critical Care Societies (COMPACCS): Critical care delivery in the United States: distribution of services and compliance with Leapfrog recommendations. Crit Care Med. 2006, 34: 1016-1024. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206105.05626.15.PubMed
76.
go back to reference McCaig LF, Burt CW: National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2001 emergency department summary. Adv Data. 2003, 335: 1-29.PubMed McCaig LF, Burt CW: National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2001 emergency department summary. Adv Data. 2003, 335: 1-29.PubMed
77.
go back to reference Trzeciak S, Rivers EP: Emergency department overcrowding in the United States: an emerging threat to patient safety and public health. Emerg Med J. 2003, 20: 402-405. 10.1136/emj.20.5.402.PubMedCentralPubMed Trzeciak S, Rivers EP: Emergency department overcrowding in the United States: an emerging threat to patient safety and public health. Emerg Med J. 2003, 20: 402-405. 10.1136/emj.20.5.402.PubMedCentralPubMed
78.
go back to reference Kellermann AL: Crisis in the emergency department. N Engl J Med. 2006, 355: 1300-1303. 10.1056/NEJMp068194.PubMed Kellermann AL: Crisis in the emergency department. N Engl J Med. 2006, 355: 1300-1303. 10.1056/NEJMp068194.PubMed
79.
go back to reference De Miguel-Yanes JM, Andueza-Lillo JA, Gonzalez-Ramallo VJ, Pastor L, Munoz J: Failure to implement evidence-based clinical guidelines for sepsis at the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2006, 24: 553-559. 10.1016/j.ajem.2006.01.012.PubMed De Miguel-Yanes JM, Andueza-Lillo JA, Gonzalez-Ramallo VJ, Pastor L, Munoz J: Failure to implement evidence-based clinical guidelines for sepsis at the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2006, 24: 553-559. 10.1016/j.ajem.2006.01.012.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Levy MM, Pronovost PJ, Dellinger RP, Townsend S, Resar RK, Clemmer TP, Ramsay G: Sepsis change bundles: converting guidelines into meaningful change in behavior and cliniqal outcome. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S595-S597. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000147016.53607.C4.PubMed Levy MM, Pronovost PJ, Dellinger RP, Townsend S, Resar RK, Clemmer TP, Ramsay G: Sepsis change bundles: converting guidelines into meaningful change in behavior and cliniqal outcome. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: S595-S597. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000147016.53607.C4.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Abate NL, Cowan RM, Stauss M, Kilgannon JH, Zanotti S, Parrillo JE: Translating research to clinical practice: a 1-year experience with implementing early goal-directed therapy for septic shock in the emergency department. Chest. 2006, 129: 225-232. 10.1378/chest.129.2.225.PubMed Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Abate NL, Cowan RM, Stauss M, Kilgannon JH, Zanotti S, Parrillo JE: Translating research to clinical practice: a 1-year experience with implementing early goal-directed therapy for septic shock in the emergency department. Chest. 2006, 129: 225-232. 10.1378/chest.129.2.225.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Beale R: Success with the sepsis bundles: going for gold. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Congress of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine; 24–27 September 2006; Barcelona, Spain. 2006, Brussels, Belgium: European Society of Intensive Care Medicine Beale R: Success with the sepsis bundles: going for gold. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Congress of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine; 24–27 September 2006; Barcelona, Spain. 2006, Brussels, Belgium: European Society of Intensive Care Medicine
83.
go back to reference Dhainaut JF, Schlemmer B, Monsallier JF, Huyghebaert MF, Brunet F, Villemant D, Carli A: Oxygen consumption during septic shock. Effects of inotropic drugs. Arch Int Physiol Biochim. 1984, 92: S57-S64. 10.3109/13813458409071163.PubMed Dhainaut JF, Schlemmer B, Monsallier JF, Huyghebaert MF, Brunet F, Villemant D, Carli A: Oxygen consumption during septic shock. Effects of inotropic drugs. Arch Int Physiol Biochim. 1984, 92: S57-S64. 10.3109/13813458409071163.PubMed
84.
go back to reference Michard F, Teboul JL: Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a critical analysis of the evidence. Chest. 2002, 121: 2000-2008. 10.1378/chest.121.6.2000.PubMed Michard F, Teboul JL: Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a critical analysis of the evidence. Chest. 2002, 121: 2000-2008. 10.1378/chest.121.6.2000.PubMed
85.
go back to reference Rivers EP, Kruse JA, Jacobsen G, Shah K, Loomba M, Otero R, Childs EW: The influence of early hemodynamic optimization on biomarker patterns of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 2016-2024. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000281637.08984.6E.PubMed Rivers EP, Kruse JA, Jacobsen G, Shah K, Loomba M, Otero R, Childs EW: The influence of early hemodynamic optimization on biomarker patterns of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 2016-2024. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000281637.08984.6E.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Sevransky JE, Nour S, Susla GM, Needham DM, Hollenberg S, Pronovost P: Hemodynamic goals in randomized clinical trials in patients with sepsis: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care. 2007, 11: R67-10.1186/cc5948.PubMedCentralPubMed Sevransky JE, Nour S, Susla GM, Needham DM, Hollenberg S, Pronovost P: Hemodynamic goals in randomized clinical trials in patients with sepsis: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care. 2007, 11: R67-10.1186/cc5948.PubMedCentralPubMed
87.
go back to reference Ziegler EJ, McCutchan JA, Fierer J, Glauser MP, Sadoff JC, Douglas H, Braude AI: Treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and shock with human antiserum to a mutant Escherichia coli. N Engl J Med. 1982, 307: 1225-1230.PubMed Ziegler EJ, McCutchan JA, Fierer J, Glauser MP, Sadoff JC, Douglas H, Braude AI: Treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and shock with human antiserum to a mutant Escherichia coli. N Engl J Med. 1982, 307: 1225-1230.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Fisher CJ, Slotman GJ, Opal SM, Pribble JP, Bone RC, Emmanuel G, Ng D, Bloedow DC, Catalano MA, IL-1RA Sepsis Syndrome Study Group: Initial evaluation of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: a randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Crit Care Med. 1994, 22: 12-21. 10.1097/00003246-199404000-00008.PubMed Fisher CJ, Slotman GJ, Opal SM, Pribble JP, Bone RC, Emmanuel G, Ng D, Bloedow DC, Catalano MA, IL-1RA Sepsis Syndrome Study Group: Initial evaluation of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: a randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Crit Care Med. 1994, 22: 12-21. 10.1097/00003246-199404000-00008.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Reinhart K, Menges T, Gardlund B, Harm Zwaveling J, Smithes M, Vincent JL, Tellado JM, Salgado-Remigio A, Zimlichman R, Withington S, et al: Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody fragment afelimomab in hyperinflammatory response during severe sepsis: The RAMSES Study. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 765-769. 10.1097/00003246-200104000-00015.PubMed Reinhart K, Menges T, Gardlund B, Harm Zwaveling J, Smithes M, Vincent JL, Tellado JM, Salgado-Remigio A, Zimlichman R, Withington S, et al: Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody fragment afelimomab in hyperinflammatory response during severe sepsis: The RAMSES Study. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 765-769. 10.1097/00003246-200104000-00015.PubMed
90.
go back to reference Fisher CJ, Agosti JM, Opal SM, Lowry SF, Balk RA, Sadoff JC, Abraham E, Schein RM, Benjamin E: Treatment of septic shock with the tumor necrosis factor receptor:Fc fusion protein. The Soluble TNF Receptor Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996, 334: 1697-1702. 10.1056/NEJM199606273342603.PubMed Fisher CJ, Agosti JM, Opal SM, Lowry SF, Balk RA, Sadoff JC, Abraham E, Schein RM, Benjamin E: Treatment of septic shock with the tumor necrosis factor receptor:Fc fusion protein. The Soluble TNF Receptor Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996, 334: 1697-1702. 10.1056/NEJM199606273342603.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Abraham E, Reinhart K, Opal S, Demeyer I, Doig C, Rodriguez AL, Beale R, Svoboda P, Laterre PF, Simon S, OPTIMIST Trial Study Group, et al: Efficacy and safety of tifacogin (recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor) in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003, 290: 238-247. 10.1001/jama.290.2.238.PubMed Abraham E, Reinhart K, Opal S, Demeyer I, Doig C, Rodriguez AL, Beale R, Svoboda P, Laterre PF, Simon S, OPTIMIST Trial Study Group, et al: Efficacy and safety of tifacogin (recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor) in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003, 290: 238-247. 10.1001/jama.290.2.238.PubMed
92.
go back to reference Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, Bollaert PE, Francois B, Korach JM, Capellier G, Cohen Y, Azoulay E, Troche G, et al: Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA. 2002, 288: 862-871. 10.1001/jama.288.7.862.PubMed Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, Bollaert PE, Francois B, Korach JM, Capellier G, Cohen Y, Azoulay E, Troche G, et al: Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA. 2002, 288: 862-871. 10.1001/jama.288.7.862.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Lipiner-Friedman D, Sprung CL, Laterre PF, Weiss Y, Goodman SV, Vogeser M, Briegel J, Keh D, Singer M, Moreno R, Corticus Study Group, et al: Adrenal function in sepsis: the retrospective Corticus cohort study. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 1012-1018. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000259465.92018.6E.PubMed Lipiner-Friedman D, Sprung CL, Laterre PF, Weiss Y, Goodman SV, Vogeser M, Briegel J, Keh D, Singer M, Moreno R, Corticus Study Group, et al: Adrenal function in sepsis: the retrospective Corticus cohort study. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35: 1012-1018. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000259465.92018.6E.PubMed
94.
go back to reference Jackson WL: Should we use etomidate as an induction agent for endotracheal intubation in patients with septic shock?: a critical appraisal. Chest. 2005, 127: 1031-1038. 10.1378/chest.127.3.1031.PubMed Jackson WL: Should we use etomidate as an induction agent for endotracheal intubation in patients with septic shock?: a critical appraisal. Chest. 2005, 127: 1031-1038. 10.1378/chest.127.3.1031.PubMed
95.
go back to reference Ray DC, McKeown DW: Effect of induction agent on vasopressor and steroid use, and outcome in patients with septic shock. Crit Care. 2007, 11: R56-10.1186/cc5916.PubMedCentralPubMed Ray DC, McKeown DW: Effect of induction agent on vasopressor and steroid use, and outcome in patients with septic shock. Crit Care. 2007, 11: R56-10.1186/cc5916.PubMedCentralPubMed
96.
go back to reference Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, LaRosa SP, Dhainaut JF, Lopez-Rodriguez A, Steingrub JS, Garber GE, Helterbrand JD, Ely EW, Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group, et al: Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2001, 344: 699-709. 10.1056/NEJM200103083441001.PubMed Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, LaRosa SP, Dhainaut JF, Lopez-Rodriguez A, Steingrub JS, Garber GE, Helterbrand JD, Ely EW, Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group, et al: Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2001, 344: 699-709. 10.1056/NEJM200103083441001.PubMed
97.
go back to reference Macias WL, Yan SB, Williams MD, Um SL, Sandusky GE, Ballard DW, Planquois JM: New insights into the protein C pathway: potential implications for the biological activities of drotrecogin alfa (activated). Crit Care. 2005, 9: S38-S45. 10.1186/cc3747.PubMedCentralPubMed Macias WL, Yan SB, Williams MD, Um SL, Sandusky GE, Ballard DW, Planquois JM: New insights into the protein C pathway: potential implications for the biological activities of drotrecogin alfa (activated). Crit Care. 2005, 9: S38-S45. 10.1186/cc3747.PubMedCentralPubMed
98.
go back to reference Kalil AC, Coyle SM, Um JY, LaRosa SP, Turlo MA, Calvano SE, Sundin DP, Nelson DR, Lowry SF: Effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in human endotoxemia. Shock. 2004, 21: 222-229. 10.1097/01.shk.0000116778.27924.79.PubMed Kalil AC, Coyle SM, Um JY, LaRosa SP, Turlo MA, Calvano SE, Sundin DP, Nelson DR, Lowry SF: Effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in human endotoxemia. Shock. 2004, 21: 222-229. 10.1097/01.shk.0000116778.27924.79.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Vincent JL, Angus DC, Artigas A, Kalil A, Basson BR, Jamal HH, Johnson G, Bernard GR, Recombinant Human Activated Protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) Study Group: Effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on organ dysfunction in the PROWESS trial. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31: 834-840. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000051515.56179.E1.PubMed Vincent JL, Angus DC, Artigas A, Kalil A, Basson BR, Jamal HH, Johnson G, Bernard GR, Recombinant Human Activated Protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) Study Group: Effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on organ dysfunction in the PROWESS trial. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31: 834-840. 10.1097/01.CCM.0000051515.56179.E1.PubMed
100.
go back to reference The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network: Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000, 342: 1301-1308. 10.1056/NEJM200005043421801. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network: Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000, 342: 1301-1308. 10.1056/NEJM200005043421801.
101.
go back to reference Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, Magaldi RB, Schettino GP, Lorenzi-Filho G, Kairalla RA, Deheinzelin D, Munoz C, Oliveira R, et al: Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998, 338: 347-354. 10.1056/NEJM199802053380602.PubMed Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, Magaldi RB, Schettino GP, Lorenzi-Filho G, Kairalla RA, Deheinzelin D, Munoz C, Oliveira R, et al: Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998, 338: 347-354. 10.1056/NEJM199802053380602.PubMed
102.
go back to reference van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, Vlasselaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R: Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345: 1359-1367. 10.1056/NEJMoa011300.PubMed van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, Vlasselaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R: Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345: 1359-1367. 10.1056/NEJMoa011300.PubMed
103.
go back to reference van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters PJ, Milants I, Van Wijngaerden E, Bobbaers H, Bouillon R: Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006, 354: 449-461. 10.1056/NEJMoa052521.PubMed van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters PJ, Milants I, Van Wijngaerden E, Bobbaers H, Bouillon R: Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006, 354: 449-461. 10.1056/NEJMoa052521.PubMed
Metadata
Title
Diagnosis and treatment of severe sepsis
Authors
Yann-Erick Claessens
Jean-François Dhainaut
Publication date
01-12-2007
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Critical Care / Issue Special Issue 5/2007
Electronic ISSN: 1364-8535
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/cc6153

Other articles of this Special Issue 5/2007

Critical Care 5/2007 Go to the issue