Top

Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine

Published in:

01-06-2016 | ACL Update: Objective Measures on Knee Instability (V Musahl, Section Editor)

Anterior cruciate ligament assessment using arthrometry and stress imaging

Authors: Eric M. Rohman, Jeffrey A. Macalena

Published in: Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine | Issue 2/2016

Abstract

Arthrometry and stress imaging are useful clinical tools for the objective assessment of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) integrity. They are most frequently used for the diagnosis of a complete ACL tear when other workup is equivocal, in conjunction with history and clinical exam findings. Other applications include the diagnosis of partial ACL tears, injury prognosis, and post-operative monitoring. However, further studies are needed to validate these uses. Many different devices and techniques exist for objective examination, which have been compared in recent literature. Reliability and validity measures of these methods vary, and often depend upon examiner familiarity and skill. The KT series of devices is the current gold standard for arthrometry, although the newer robotic GNRB device shows promising early results. Newer methods of data interpretation have been developed for stress imaging, and portable technology may impact this field further.

1.••

James EW, Williams BT, LaPrade RF. Stress radiography for the diagnosis of knee ligament injuries: a systematic review. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014;472(9):2644–57. A comprehensive review of the various techniques of stress imaging for ACL laxity.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Beldame J, Bertiaux S, Roussignol X, et al. Laxity measurements using stress radiography to assess anterior cruciate ligament tears. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2011;97(1):34–43.PubMedCrossRef

Benjaminse A, Gokeler A, van der Schans CP. Clinical diagnosis of an anterior cruciate ligament rupture: a meta-analysis. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 2006;36(5):267–88.CrossRef

Oei EHG, Nikken JJ, Verstijnen ACM, Ginai AZ, Myriam Hunink MG. MR imaging of the menisci and cruciate ligaments: a systematic review. Radiology. 2003;226(3):837–48.PubMedCrossRef

Panisset JC, Ntagiopoulos PG, Saggin PR, Dejour D. A comparison of Telos stress radiography versus Rolimeter in the diagnosis of different patterns of anterior cruciate ligament tears. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2012;98(7):751–8.PubMedCrossRef

Lee YS, Han SH, Jo J, Kwak K-S, Nha KW, Kim JH. Comparison of 5 different methods for measuring stress radiographs to improve reproducibility during the evaluation of knee instability. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(6):1275–81.PubMedCrossRef

Wirz P, von Stokar P, Jakob RP. The effect of knee position on the reproducibility of measurements taken from stress films: a comparison of four measurement methods. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2000;8(3):143–8.PubMedCrossRef

McPhee IB, Fraser JG. Stress radiography in acute ligamentous injuries of the knee. Injury. 1981;12(5):383–8.PubMedCrossRef

Lerat JL, Moyen BL, Cladière F, Besse JL, Abidi H. Quantification of the Lachman test. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 2000;82(1):42–7.CrossRef

10.

Staubli H-U, Noesberger B, Jakob RP. Stressradiography of the knee. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63(249):1–27.

11.

Hooper G. Radiological assessment of anterior cruciate ligament deficiency: a new technique. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1986;68(2):292–6.

12.

Franklin J, Rosenberg T, Paulos L, France EP. Radiographic assessment of instability of the knee due to rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1991;73(3):365–72.PubMed

13.

Dejour H, Walch G, Chambat P, Ranger P. Active subluxation in extension: a new concept of study of the ACL deficient knee. Am J Knee Surg. 1988;1:204–11.

14.

Dejour H, Bonnin M. Tibial translation after anterior cruciate ligament rupture: two radiological tests compared. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1994;76(5):745–9.

15.

Jacobsen K. Stress radiographical measurement of the anteroposterior, medial and lateral stability of the knee joint. Acta Orthop Scand. 1976;47(3):335–4.PubMedCrossRef

16.

Rijke AM, Goitz HT, Mccue FC, Delp JL, Lam D, Southall EP. Graded stress radiography of injured anterior cruciate ligaments. Invest Radiol. 1991;26(11):926–33.PubMedCrossRef

17.

Garcés GL, Perdomo E, Guerra A, Cabrera-Bonilla R. Stress radiography in the diagnosis of anterior cruciate ligament deficiency. Int Orthop. 1995;19(2):86–8.PubMedCrossRef

18.

Beldame J, Mouchel S, Bertiaux S, et al. Anterior knee laxity measurement: comparison of passive stress radiographs Telos and “Lerat”, and GNRB arthrometer. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2012;98(7):744–50.PubMedCrossRef

19.

Dejour D, Ntagiopoulos PG, Saggin PR, Panisset JC. The diagnostic value of clinical tests, magnetic resonance imaging, and instrumented laxity in the differentiation of complete versus partial anterior cruciate ligament tears. Arthroscopy. 2013;29(3):491–9.PubMedCrossRef

20.

Shino K, Inoue M, Horibe S, Nakamura H, Ono K. Measurement of the anterior instability of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1987;69(4):608–13.

21.

Lerat JL, Moyen B, Jenny JY, Perrier JP. A comparison of pre-operative evaluation of anterior knee laxity by dynamic X-rays and by the arthrometer KT 1000. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1993;1(1):54–9.PubMedCrossRef

22.•

Bouguennec N, Odri GA, Graveleau N, Colombet P. Comparative reproducibility of TELOS and GNRB for instrumental measurement of anterior tibial translation in normal knees. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2015;101(3):301–5. The largest recent study investigating the reliability of GNRB measurements.PubMedCrossRef

23.

Hoshino Y, Araujo P, Ahldén M, et al. Quantitative evaluation of the pivot shift by image analysis using the iPad. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2013;21(4):975–80.PubMedCrossRef

24.

Espregueira-Mendes J, Pereira H, Sevivas N, et al. Assessment of rotatory laxity in anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knees using magnetic resonance imaging with Porto-knee testing device. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2012;20(4):671–8.PubMedCrossRef

25.

Daniel D, Malcom L, Losse G, Stone ML, Sachs R, Burks R. Instrumented measurement of anterior laxity of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1985;67(5):720–6.PubMed

26.

Malcom L, Daniel D, Stone ML, Sachs R. The measurement of anterior knee laxity after ACL reconstructive surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1985;196:35–41.PubMed

27.

Arneja S, Leith J. Review article: validity of the KT-1000 knee ligament arthrometer. J Orthop Surg. 2009;17(1):77–9.

28.

Liu S, Osti L, Henry M, Bocchi L. The diagnosis of acute complete tears of the anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1995;77(4):586–8.

29.

Forster IW, Warren-Smith CD, Tew M. Is the KT1000 knee ligament arthrometer reliable? J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1989;71(5):843–7.

30.

Bach BR, Warren RF, Flynn WM, Kroll M, Wickiewiecz TL. Arthrometric evaluation of knees that have a torn anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(9):1299–306.PubMed

31.••

Van Eck CF, Loopik M, van den Bekerom MP, Fu FH, Kerkhoffs GMMJ. Methods to diagnose acute anterior cruciate ligament rupture: a meta-analysis of instrumented knee laxity tests. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2013;21(9):1989–97. A very comprehensive comparison of the reliability and validity of a wide range of arthrometers.PubMedCrossRef

32.

Highgenboten CL, Jackson AW, Jansson KA, Meske NB. KT-1000 arthrometer: conscious and unconscious test results using 15, 20, and 30 pounds of force. Am J Sports Med. 1992;20(4):450–4.PubMedCrossRef

33.

Hanten WP, Pace MB. Reliability of measuring anterior laxity of the knee joint using a knee ligament arthrometer. Phys Ther. 1987;67(3):357–9.PubMed

34.

Fiebert I, Gresley J, Hoffman S, Kunkel K. Comparative measurements of anterior tibial translation using the KT-1000 knee arthrometer with the leg in neutral, internal rotation, and external rotation. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 1994;19(6):331–4.CrossRef

35.

Highgenboten C, Jackson A, Meske NB. Genucom, KT-1000, and Stryker knee laxity measuring device comparisons. Am J Sports Med. 1989;17(6):743–6.PubMedCrossRef

36.

Torzilli P, Panariello R, Forbes A, Santner T, Warren R. Measurement reproducibility of two commercial knee test devices. J Orthop Res. 1991;9(5):730–7.PubMedCrossRef

37.

Queale WS, Snyder-Mackler L, Handling K, Richards JG. Instrumented examination of knee laxity in patients with anterior cruciate deficiency: a comparison of the KT-2000, Knee Signature System, and Genucom. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 1994;19(6):345–51.CrossRef

38.

Myrer JW, Schulthies SS, Fellingham GW. Relative and absolute reliability of the KT-2000 arthrometer for uninjured knees. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24(1):104–8.PubMedCrossRef

39.

Sernert N, Kartus JTJ, Ejerhed L, Karlsson J. Right and left knee laxity measurements: a prospective study of patients with anterior cruciate ligament injuries and normal control subjects. Arthroscopy. 2004;20(6):564–71.PubMedCrossRef

40.

Ballantyne BT, French AK, Heimsoth SL, Kachingwe AF, Lee JB, Soderberg GL. Influence of examiner experience and gender on interrater reliability of KT-1000 arthrometer measurements. Phys Ther. 1995;75(10):898–906.PubMed

41.

Wroble R, Van Ginkel L, Grood E, Noyes F, Shaffer B. Repeatability of the KT-1000 arthrometer in a normal population. Am J Sports Med. 1990;18(4):396–9.PubMedCrossRef

42.

Hefti F, Muller W, Jakob R, Staubli H. Evaluation of knee ligament injuries with the IKDC form. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1993;1(3–4):226–34.PubMedCrossRef

43.

Wiertsema SH, van Hooff HJA, Migchelsen LAA, Steultjens MPM. Reliability of the KT1000 arthrometer and the Lachman test in patients with an ACL rupture. Knee. 2008;15(2):107–10.PubMedCrossRef

44.

Robnett NJ, Riddle DL, Kues JM. Intertester reliability of measurements obtained with the KT-1000 on patients with reconstructed anterior cruciate ligaments. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 1995;21(2):113–9.CrossRef

45.

Berry J, Kramer K, Binkley J, et al. Error estimates in novice and expert raters for the KT-1000 arthrometer. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 1999;29(1):49–55.CrossRef

46.

Markolf KL, Graff-Radford A, Amstutz HC. In vivo knee stability: a quantitative assessment using an instrumented clinical testing apparatus. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1978;60(5):664–74.PubMed

47.

Kowalk DL, Wojtys EM, Disher J, Loubert P. Quantitative analysis of the measuring capabilities of the KT-1000 knee ligament arthrometer. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21(5):744–7.PubMedCrossRef

48.

Sernert N, Helmers J, Kartus C, Ejerhed L, Kartus J. Knee-laxity measurements examined by a left-hand- and a right-hand-dominant physiotherapist, in patients with anterior cruciate ligament injuries and healthy controls. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2007;15(10):1181–6.PubMedCrossRef

49.

Wright RW, Luhmann SJ. The effect of knee effusions on KT-1000 arthrometry: a cadaver study. Am J Sports Med. 1998;26(4):571–4.PubMed

50.

Robert H, Nouveau S, Gageot S, Gagnière B. A new knee arthrometer, the GNRB: experience in ACL complete and partial tears. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2009;95(3):171–6.PubMedCrossRef

51.

Collette M, Courville J, Forton M, Gagnière B. Objective evaluation of anterior knee laxity; comparison of the KT-1000 and GNRB arthrometers. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2012;20(11):2233–8.PubMedCrossRef

52.

Vauhnik R, Morrissey MC, Perme MP, Sevsek F, Rugelj D. Inter-rater reliability of the GNRB knee arthrometer. Knee. 2014;21(2):541–3.PubMedCrossRef

53.

Vauhnik R, Perme MP, Barcellona MG, Rugelj D, Morrissey MC, Sevsek F. Robotic knee laxity testing: reliability and normative data. Knee. 2013;20(4):250–5.PubMedCrossRef

54.•

Lefevre N, Bohu Y, Naouri JF, Klouche S, Herman S. Validity of GNRB arthrometer compared to Telos in the assessment of partial anterior cruciate ligament tears. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2014;22(2):285–90. The largest recent study comparing GNRB to stress imaging and establishing its utility in diagnosis of partial ACL tears.PubMedCrossRef

55.

Balasch H, Schiller M, Friebel H, Hoffmann F. Evaluation of anterior knee joint instability with the Rolimeter: a test in comparison with manual assessment and measuring with the KT-1000 arthrometer. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1999;7:204–8.PubMedCrossRef

56.

Hatcher J, Hatcher A, Arbuthnot J, McNicholas M. An investigation to examine the inter-tester and intra-tester reliability of the Rolimeter knee tester, and its sensitivity in identifying knee joint laxity. J Orthop Res. 2005;23(6):1399–403.PubMed

57.

Muellner T, Bugge W, Johansen S, Holtan C, Engebretsen L. Inter- and intratester comparison of the Rolimeter knee tester: effect of tester’s experience and the examination technique. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2001;9(5):302–6.PubMedCrossRef

58.

Papandreou MG, Antonogiannakis E, Karabalis C, Karliaftis K. Inter-rater reliability of Rolimeter measurements between anterior cruciate ligament injured and normal contralateral knees. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2005;13:592–7.PubMedCrossRef

59.

Schuster AJ, Mcnicholas MJ, Wachtl SW, Mcgurty DW, Jakob RP. A new mechanical testing device for measuring anteroposterior knee laxity. Am J Sports Med. 2004;32(7):1731–5.PubMedCrossRef

60.

Passler H, Ververidis A, Monauni F. Beweglichkeitswertung an knien mit VKB-schaden mit hilfe des KT 1000 und Aircast Rolimeter. Hefte zur Zeitschrift der Unfallchirurg. 1998;272:731–2.

61.

Oliver JH, Coughlin LP. Objective knee evaluation using the Genucom Knee Analysis System: clinical implications. Am J Sports Med. 1987;15(6):571–8.PubMedCrossRef

62.

Highgenboten C, Jackson A, Meske N. Genucom knee analysis system: reproducibility and database development. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22(5):713–7.PubMedCrossRef

63.

McQuade KJ, Sidles JA, Larson RV. Reliability of the Genucom Knee Analysis System: a pilot study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989;245:216–9.PubMed

64.

Steiner M, Brown C, Zarins B, Brownstein B, Koval P, Stone P. Measurement of anterior-posterior displacement of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(9):1307–15.PubMed

65.

Andersen HN, Frandsen PA. Assessment of anterior cruciate laxity using the Genucom System. Int Orthop. 1993;17(6):375–83.PubMedCrossRef

66.

Draganich L, Sathy M, Reider B. The effect of thigh and goniometer restraints on the reproducibility of the genucom knee analysis system. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22(5):627–31.PubMedCrossRef

67.

Granberry W, Noble P, Woods W. Evaluation of an electrogoniometric instrument for measurement of laxity of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(9):1316–22.PubMed

68.

Wroble RR, Grood ES, Noyes FR, Schmitt DJ. Reproducibility of Genucom knee analysis system testing. Am J Sports Med. 1990;18(4):387–95.PubMedCrossRef

69.

Boniface RJ, Fu FH, Ilkhanipour K. Objective anterior cruciate ligament testing. Orthopedics. 1986;9(3):391–3.PubMed

70.

Sherman OH, Markolf KL, Ferkel RD. Measurements of anterior laxity in normal and anterior cruciate absent knees with two instrumented test devices. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1987;215:156–61.PubMed

71.

Pugh L, Mascarenhas R, Arneja S, Chin PYK, Leith JM. Current concepts in instrumented knee-laxity testing. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37(1):199–210.PubMedCrossRef

72.

Un BS, Beynnon BD, Churchill DL, Haugh LD, Risberg MA, Fleming BC. A new device to measure knee laxity during weightbearing and non-weightbearing conditions. J Orthop Res. 2001;19(6):1185–91.PubMedCrossRef

73.

Edixhoven P, Huiskes R, de Graaf R, van Rens TJG, Slooff TJ. Accuracy and reproducibility of instrumented knee-drawer tests. J Orthop Res. 1987;5(3):378–87.PubMedCrossRef

74.

Fruensgaard S, Krøner K, Riis J. Suture of the torn anterior cruciate ligament. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63(3):323–5.PubMedCrossRef

75.

Daniel DM, Stone ML, Sachs R, Malcom L. Instrumented measurement of anterior knee laxity in patients with acute anterior cruciate ligament disruption. Am J Sports Med. 1985;13(6):401–7.PubMedCrossRef

76.

Ramski DE, Kanj WW, Franklin CC, Baldwin KD, Ganley TJ. Anterior cruciate ligament tears in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis of nonoperative versus operative treatment. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(11):2769–76.PubMedCrossRef

77.•

Klouche S, Lefevre N, Cascua S, Herman S, Gerometta A, Bohu Y. Diagnostic value of the GNRB in relation to pressure load for complete ACL tears : a prospective case–control study of 118 subjects. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2015;101(3):297–300. The largest case–control study evaluating the diagnostic capabilities of the GNRB arthrometer.PubMedCrossRef

78.

Liu W, Maitland ME, Bell GD. A modeling study of partial ACL injury: simulated KT-2000 arthrometer tests. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(3):294–301.PubMedCrossRef

79.

Wordeman SC, Paterno MV, Quatman CE, Bates NA, Hewett TE. Arthrometric curve-shape variables to assess anterior cruciate ligament deficiency. Clin Biomech. 2012;27(8):830–6.CrossRef

80.

Maitland ME, Bell GD, Mohtadi NGH, Herzog W. Quantitative analysis of anterior cruciate ligament instability. Clin Biomech. 1995;10(2):93–7.CrossRef

81.•

Jenny J, Arndt J, Computer Assisted OrthoPaedic Surgery-France (CAOS). Anterior knee laxity measurement using stress radiographs and the GNRB system versus intraoperative navigation. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2013;99(6):S297–300. Compares GNRB arthrometry to stress imaging and finds comparable results, supporting its clinical value.PubMedCrossRef

82.

Staubli H-U, Jakob RP. Anterior knee motion analysis—measurement and simultaneous radiography. Am J Sports Med. 1991;19(2):172–7.PubMedCrossRef

83.

Fleming BC, Brattbakk B, Peura GD, Badger GJ, Beynnon BD. Measurement of anterior-posterior knee laxity: a comparison of three techniques. J Orthop Res. 2002;20(3):421–6.PubMedCrossRef

84.

Anderson AF, Snyder RB, Federspiel CF, Lipscomb AB. Instrumented evaluation of knee laxity: a comparison of five arthrometers. Am J Sports Med. 1992;20(2):135–40.PubMedCrossRef

85.

Ganko A, Engebretsen L, Ozer H. The Rolimeter a new arthrometer compared with the KT-1000. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2000;8(1):36–9.PubMedCrossRef

86.

Anderson AF, Lipscomb AB. Preoperative instrumented testing of anterior and posterior knee laxity. Am J Sports Med. 1989;17(3):387–92.PubMedCrossRef

87.

Graham G, Johnson S, Dent C, Fairclough J. Comparison of clinical tests and the KT1000 in the diagnosis of anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Br J Sports Med. 1991;25(2):96–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

88.

DeFranco M, Bach B. A comprehensive review of partial anterior cruciate ligament tears. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2009;91(1):198–208.PubMedCrossRef

89.

Fritschy D, Panoussopoulos A, Wallensten R, Peter R. Can we predict the outcome of a partial rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament? A prospective study of 43 cases. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1997;5(1):2–5.PubMedCrossRef

90.

Bak K, Scavenius M, Hansen S, Nørring K, Jensen KH, Jorgensen U. Isolated partial rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1997;5(2):66–71.PubMedCrossRef

91.

Messner K, Maletius W. Eighteen- to twenty-five-year follow-up after acute partial anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27(4):455–9.PubMed

92.

Lintner DM, Kamaric E, Moseley JB, Noble PC. Partial tears of the anterior cruciate ligament: are they clinically detectable? Am J Sports Med. 1995;23(1):111–8.PubMedCrossRef

93.

Noyes FR, Mooar LA, Moorman III CT, McGinniss GH. Partial tears of the anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1989;71(5):825–33.

94.

Fruensgaard S, Johannsen HV. Incomplete ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1989;71(3):526–30.

95.••

Kim S, Lee S, Kim S, Kim S, Kim J, Jung M. Does anterior laxity of the uninjured knee influence clinical outcomes of ACL reconstruction? J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014;96(7):543–8. Suggests that uninvolved knee laximetry can help predict the outcome of contralateral knee ACL reconstruction. Validates arthrometry as a quantitative tool, as opposed to simply a dichotomous tool.PubMedCrossRef

96.•

Kiapour A, Wordeman S, Paterno M, et al. Diagnostic value of knee arthrometry in the prediction of anterior cruciate ligament strain during landing. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(2):312–9. Validates knee laximetry as correlated with in-vivo ACL stress during functional athletic maneuvers.PubMedCrossRef

97.

Hyder N, Bollen S, Sefton G, Swann A. Correlation between arthrometric evaluation of knees using KT 1000 and Telos stress radiography and functional outcome following ACL reconstruction. Knee. 1997;4(3):121–4.CrossRef

98.

Pollet V, Barrat D, Meirhaeghe E, Vaes P, Handelberg F. The role of the Rolimeter in quantifying knee instability compared to the functional outcome of ACL-reconstructed versus conservatively-treated knees. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2005;13(1):12–8.PubMedCrossRef

99.

Giannotti BF, Fanelli GC, Barrett TA, Edson C. The predictive value of intraoperative KT-1000 arthrometer measurements in single incision anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy. 1996;12(6):660–6.PubMedCrossRef

100.

O’Brien S, Warren R, Pavlov H, Panariello R, Wickiewicz T. Reconstruction of the chronically insufficient anterior cruciate ligament with the central third of the patellar ligament. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1991;73(2):278–86.PubMed

Title: Anterior cruciate ligament assessment using arthrometry and stress imaging
Authors: Eric M. Rohman
Jeffrey A. Macalena
Publication date: 01-06-2016
Publisher: Springer US
Published in: Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine / Issue 2/2016
Electronic ISSN: 1935-9748
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12178-016-9331-1

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Anterior cruciate ligament assessment using arthrometry and stress imaging

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 2/2016

Posterolateral rotatory instability of the elbow

Knee instability scores for ACL reconstruction

ACL update: objective measures on knee instability: an introduction

Objective measurements of static anterior and rotational knee laxity

Distal biceps ruptures: open and endoscopic techniques

Treatment of complex elbow fracture-dislocations