Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Translational Neurodegeneration 1/2018

Open Access 01-12-2018 | Review

Alzheimer’s disease hypothesis and related therapies

Authors: Xiaoguang Du, Xinyi Wang, Meiyu Geng

Published in: Translational Neurodegeneration | Issue 1/2018

Login to get access

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause for dementia. There are many hypotheses about AD, including abnormal deposit of amyloid β (Aβ) protein in the extracellular spaces of neurons, formation of twisted fibers of tau proteins inside neurons, cholinergic neuron damage, inflammation, oxidative stress, etc., and many anti-AD drugs based on these hypotheses have been developed. In this review, we will discuss the existing and emerging hypothesis and related therapies.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Ali G-C, Guerchet M, Wu Y-T, Prince M, Prina M. Chapter 2: The global prevalence of dementia. In: Prince M, Guerchet M, Ali G-C, Wu Y-T, Prina M, editors. The Global Impact of Dementia. An analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International (ADI); 2015. p. 10–29. Ali G-C, Guerchet M, Wu Y-T, Prince M, Prina M. Chapter 2: The global prevalence of dementia. In: Prince M, Guerchet M, Ali G-C, Wu Y-T, Prina M, editors. The Global Impact of Dementia. An analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International (ADI); 2015. p. 10–29.
3.
go back to reference Vassar R, Citron M. Abeta-generating enzymes: recent advances in beta- and gamma-secretase research. Neuron. 2000;27(3):419–22.PubMedCrossRef Vassar R, Citron M. Abeta-generating enzymes: recent advances in beta- and gamma-secretase research. Neuron. 2000;27(3):419–22.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference van Es JH, et al. Notch/gamma-secretase inhibition turns proliferative cells in intestinal crypts and adenomas into goblet cells. Nature. 2005;435(7044):959–63.PubMedCrossRef van Es JH, et al. Notch/gamma-secretase inhibition turns proliferative cells in intestinal crypts and adenomas into goblet cells. Nature. 2005;435(7044):959–63.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Olry A, et al. Generation and characterization of mutant cell lines defective in gamma-secretase processing of notch and amyloid precursor protein. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(31):28564–71.PubMedCrossRef Olry A, et al. Generation and characterization of mutant cell lines defective in gamma-secretase processing of notch and amyloid precursor protein. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(31):28564–71.PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Tarassishin L, et al. Processing of notch and amyloid precursor protein by gamma-secretase is spatially distinct. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(49):17050–5.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Tarassishin L, et al. Processing of notch and amyloid precursor protein by gamma-secretase is spatially distinct. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(49):17050–5.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Sastre M, et al. Presenilin-dependent gamma-secretase processing of beta-amyloid precursor protein at a site corresponding to the S3 cleavage of notch. EMBO Rep. 2001;2(9):835–41.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Sastre M, et al. Presenilin-dependent gamma-secretase processing of beta-amyloid precursor protein at a site corresponding to the S3 cleavage of notch. EMBO Rep. 2001;2(9):835–41.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
8.
go back to reference Klaver DW, et al. Is BACE1 a suitable therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease? Current strategies and future directions. Biol Chem. 2010;391(8):849–59.PubMedCrossRef Klaver DW, et al. Is BACE1 a suitable therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease? Current strategies and future directions. Biol Chem. 2010;391(8):849–59.PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Abramov E, et al. Amyloid-beta as a positive endogenous regulator of release probability at hippocampal synapses. Nat Neurosci. 2009;12(12):1567–76.PubMedCrossRef Abramov E, et al. Amyloid-beta as a positive endogenous regulator of release probability at hippocampal synapses. Nat Neurosci. 2009;12(12):1567–76.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Gilman S, et al. Clinical effects of Abeta immunization (AN1792) in patients with AD in AN interrupted trial. Neurology. 2005;64(9):1553–62.PubMedCrossRef Gilman S, et al. Clinical effects of Abeta immunization (AN1792) in patients with AD in AN interrupted trial. Neurology. 2005;64(9):1553–62.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Bayer AJ, et al. Evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of synthetic Abeta42 (AN1792) in patients with AD. Neurology. 2005;64(1):94–101.PubMedCrossRef Bayer AJ, et al. Evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of synthetic Abeta42 (AN1792) in patients with AD. Neurology. 2005;64(1):94–101.PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Holmes C, et al. Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer’s disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9634):216–23.PubMedCrossRef Holmes C, et al. Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer’s disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9634):216–23.PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Laskowitz DT, Kolls BJ. A phase 2 multiple ascending dose trial of bapineuzumab in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2010;74(24):2026. author reply 2026-7PubMedCrossRef Laskowitz DT, Kolls BJ. A phase 2 multiple ascending dose trial of bapineuzumab in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2010;74(24):2026. author reply 2026-7PubMedCrossRef
14.
16.
go back to reference Bouter Y, et al. Abeta targets of the biosimilar antibodies of Bapineuzumab, Crenezumab, Solanezumab in comparison to an antibody against Ntruncated Abeta in sporadic Alzheimer disease cases and mouse models. Acta Neuropathol. 2015;130(5):713–29.PubMedCrossRef Bouter Y, et al. Abeta targets of the biosimilar antibodies of Bapineuzumab, Crenezumab, Solanezumab in comparison to an antibody against Ntruncated Abeta in sporadic Alzheimer disease cases and mouse models. Acta Neuropathol. 2015;130(5):713–29.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference The Lancet N. Solanezumab: too late in mild Alzheimer’ss disease? Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(2):97.CrossRef The Lancet N. Solanezumab: too late in mild Alzheimer’ss disease? Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(2):97.CrossRef
18.
go back to reference Gandy S, Sano M. Alzheimer disease: Solanezumab-prospects for meaningful interventions in AD? Nat Rev Neurol. 2015;11(12):669–70.PubMedCrossRef Gandy S, Sano M. Alzheimer disease: Solanezumab-prospects for meaningful interventions in AD? Nat Rev Neurol. 2015;11(12):669–70.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Landen JW, et al. Safety and pharmacology of a single intravenous dose of ponezumab in subjects with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer disease: a phase I, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, dose-escalation study. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2013;36(1):14–23.PubMedCrossRef Landen JW, et al. Safety and pharmacology of a single intravenous dose of ponezumab in subjects with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer disease: a phase I, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, dose-escalation study. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2013;36(1):14–23.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Burstein AH, et al. Safety and pharmacology of ponezumab (PF-04360365) after a single 10-minute intravenous infusion in subjects with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2013;36(1):8–13.PubMedCrossRef Burstein AH, et al. Safety and pharmacology of ponezumab (PF-04360365) after a single 10-minute intravenous infusion in subjects with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2013;36(1):8–13.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference La Porte SL, et al. Structural basis of C-terminal beta-amyloid peptide binding by the antibody ponezumab for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Biol. 2012;421(4–5):525–36.PubMedCrossRef La Porte SL, et al. Structural basis of C-terminal beta-amyloid peptide binding by the antibody ponezumab for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Biol. 2012;421(4–5):525–36.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Carlson C, et al. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities from trials of solanezumab for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2016;2:75–85. Carlson C, et al. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities from trials of solanezumab for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2016;2:75–85.
23.
24.
go back to reference Aisen PS, et al. Tramiprosate in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease - a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre study (the Alphase study). Arch Med Sci. 2011;7(1):102–11.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Aisen PS, et al. Tramiprosate in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease - a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre study (the Alphase study). Arch Med Sci. 2011;7(1):102–11.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Greenberg SM, et al. A phase 2 study of tramiprosate for cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2006;20(4):269–74.PubMedCrossRef Greenberg SM, et al. A phase 2 study of tramiprosate for cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2006;20(4):269–74.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Gervais F, et al. Targeting soluble Abeta peptide with Tramiprosate for the treatment of brain amyloidosis. Neurobiol Aging. 2007;28(4):537–47.PubMedCrossRef Gervais F, et al. Targeting soluble Abeta peptide with Tramiprosate for the treatment of brain amyloidosis. Neurobiol Aging. 2007;28(4):537–47.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Karran E, Mercken M, De Strooper B. The amyloid cascade hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease: an appraisal for the development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2011;10(9):698–712.PubMedCrossRef Karran E, Mercken M, De Strooper B. The amyloid cascade hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease: an appraisal for the development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2011;10(9):698–712.PubMedCrossRef
28.
go back to reference Nie Q, Du XG, Geng MY. Small molecule inhibitors of amyloid beta peptide aggregation as a potential therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2011;32(5):545–51.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Nie Q, Du XG, Geng MY. Small molecule inhibitors of amyloid beta peptide aggregation as a potential therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2011;32(5):545–51.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
29.
go back to reference Sevigny J, et al. Addendum: the antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Nature. 2017;546(7659):564.PubMedCrossRef Sevigny J, et al. Addendum: the antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Nature. 2017;546(7659):564.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Sevigny J, et al. The antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Nature. 2016;537(7618):50–6.PubMedCrossRef Sevigny J, et al. The antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Nature. 2016;537(7618):50–6.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Patel KR. Biogen's aducanumab raises hope that Alzheimer's can be treated at its source. Manag Care. 2015;24(6):19. Patel KR. Biogen's aducanumab raises hope that Alzheimer's can be treated at its source. Manag Care. 2015;24(6):19.
32.
33.
go back to reference Siemers ER, et al. Phase 3 solanezumab trials: secondary outcomes in mild Alzheimer's disease patients. Alzheimers Dement. 2016;12(2):110–20.PubMedCrossRef Siemers ER, et al. Phase 3 solanezumab trials: secondary outcomes in mild Alzheimer's disease patients. Alzheimers Dement. 2016;12(2):110–20.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Barrera-Ocampo A, Lopera F. Amyloid-beta immunotherapy: the hope for Alzheimer disease? Colomb Med (Cali). 2016;47(4):203–12. Barrera-Ocampo A, Lopera F. Amyloid-beta immunotherapy: the hope for Alzheimer disease? Colomb Med (Cali). 2016;47(4):203–12.
35.
go back to reference Hardy JA, Higgins GA. Alzheimer’s disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science. 1992;256(5054):184–5.PubMedCrossRef Hardy JA, Higgins GA. Alzheimer’s disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science. 1992;256(5054):184–5.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Wang J, et al. A systemic view of Alzheimer disease - insights from amyloid-beta metabolism beyond the brain. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13(10):612–23.PubMedCrossRef Wang J, et al. A systemic view of Alzheimer disease - insights from amyloid-beta metabolism beyond the brain. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13(10):612–23.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Morris M, et al. Tau post-translational modifications in wild-type and human amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(8):1183–9.PubMedCrossRef Morris M, et al. Tau post-translational modifications in wild-type and human amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(8):1183–9.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Gauthier S, et al. Efficacy and safety of tau-aggregation inhibitor therapy in patients with mild or moderate Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2016;388(10062):2873–84.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Gauthier S, et al. Efficacy and safety of tau-aggregation inhibitor therapy in patients with mild or moderate Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2016;388(10062):2873–84.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Novak P, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the tau vaccine AADvac1 in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(2):123–34.PubMedCrossRef Novak P, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the tau vaccine AADvac1 in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(2):123–34.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Li C, Gotz J. Tau-based therapies in neurodegeneration: opportunities and challenges. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2017; Li C, Gotz J. Tau-based therapies in neurodegeneration: opportunities and challenges. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2017;
43.
44.
45.
go back to reference Song W, et al. Alzheimer's disease-associated TREM2 variants exhibit either decreased or increased ligand-dependent activation. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(4):381–7.PubMedCrossRef Song W, et al. Alzheimer's disease-associated TREM2 variants exhibit either decreased or increased ligand-dependent activation. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(4):381–7.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Colonna M, Wang Y. TREM2 variants: new keys to decipher Alzheimer disease pathogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2016;17(4):201–7.PubMedCrossRef Colonna M, Wang Y. TREM2 variants: new keys to decipher Alzheimer disease pathogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2016;17(4):201–7.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Bolos M, Perea JR, Avila J. Alzheimer's disease as an inflammatory disease. Biomol Concepts. 2017;8(1):37–43.PubMedCrossRef Bolos M, Perea JR, Avila J. Alzheimer's disease as an inflammatory disease. Biomol Concepts. 2017;8(1):37–43.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Hong S, Dissing-Olesen L, Stevens B. New insights on the role of microglia in synaptic pruning in health and disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2016;36:128–34.PubMedCrossRef Hong S, Dissing-Olesen L, Stevens B. New insights on the role of microglia in synaptic pruning in health and disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2016;36:128–34.PubMedCrossRef
49.
go back to reference Paolicelli RC, et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science. 2011;333(6048):1456–8.PubMedCrossRef Paolicelli RC, et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science. 2011;333(6048):1456–8.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Bliss TV, Collingridge GL, Morris RG. Synaptic plasticity in health and disease: introduction and overview. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci. 2014;369(1633):20130129.CrossRef Bliss TV, Collingridge GL, Morris RG. Synaptic plasticity in health and disease: introduction and overview. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci. 2014;369(1633):20130129.CrossRef
51.
go back to reference Chen J, et al. Inhibition of AGEs/RAGE/rho/ROCK pathway suppresses non-specific neuroinflammation by regulating BV2 microglial M1/M2 polarization through the NF-kappaB pathway. J Neuroimmunol. 2017;305:108–14.PubMedCrossRef Chen J, et al. Inhibition of AGEs/RAGE/rho/ROCK pathway suppresses non-specific neuroinflammation by regulating BV2 microglial M1/M2 polarization through the NF-kappaB pathway. J Neuroimmunol. 2017;305:108–14.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Hirbec H E, Noristani HN, Perrin FE. Microglia Responses in Acute and Chronic Neurological Diseases: What Microglia-Specific Transcriptomic Studies Taught (and did Not Teach) Us. Front Aging Neurosci. 2017;9:227.CrossRef Hirbec H E, Noristani HN, Perrin FE. Microglia Responses in Acute and Chronic Neurological Diseases: What Microglia-Specific Transcriptomic Studies Taught (and did Not Teach) Us. Front Aging Neurosci. 2017;9:227.CrossRef
53.
go back to reference Baruch K, et al. PD-1 immune checkpoint blockade reduces pathology and improves memory in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Nat Med. 2016;22(2):135–7.PubMedCrossRef Baruch K, et al. PD-1 immune checkpoint blockade reduces pathology and improves memory in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Nat Med. 2016;22(2):135–7.PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Saresella M, et al. A potential role for the PD1/PD-L1 pathway in the neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2012;33(3):624 e11–22.CrossRef Saresella M, et al. A potential role for the PD1/PD-L1 pathway in the neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2012;33(3):624 e11–22.CrossRef
55.
go back to reference Saresella M, et al. PD1 negative and PD1 positive CD4+ T regulatory cells in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2010;21(3):927–38.PubMedCrossRef Saresella M, et al. PD1 negative and PD1 positive CD4+ T regulatory cells in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2010;21(3):927–38.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Jevtic S, et al. The role of the immune system in Alzheimer disease: etiology and treatment. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;40:84–94.PubMedCrossRef Jevtic S, et al. The role of the immune system in Alzheimer disease: etiology and treatment. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;40:84–94.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference McGeer PL, McGeer EG. Targeting microglia for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2015;19(4):497–506.PubMedCrossRef McGeer PL, McGeer EG. Targeting microglia for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2015;19(4):497–506.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Salter MW, Stevens B. Microglia emerge as central players in brain disease. Nat Med. 2017;23(9):1018–27.PubMedCrossRef Salter MW, Stevens B. Microglia emerge as central players in brain disease. Nat Med. 2017;23(9):1018–27.PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Hasselmo ME, Anderson BP, Bower JM. Cholinergic modulation of cortical associative memory function. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67(5):1230–46.PubMedCrossRef Hasselmo ME, Anderson BP, Bower JM. Cholinergic modulation of cortical associative memory function. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67(5):1230–46.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Fine A, et al. Learning impairments following injection of a selective cholinergic immunotoxin, ME20.4 IgG-saporin, into the basal nucleus of Meynert in monkeys. Neuroscience. 1997;81(2):331–43.PubMedCrossRef Fine A, et al. Learning impairments following injection of a selective cholinergic immunotoxin, ME20.4 IgG-saporin, into the basal nucleus of Meynert in monkeys. Neuroscience. 1997;81(2):331–43.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Sarter M, Bruno JP. Cognitive functions of cortical acetylcholine: toward a unifying hypothesis. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1997;23(1–2):28–46.PubMedCrossRef Sarter M, Bruno JP. Cognitive functions of cortical acetylcholine: toward a unifying hypothesis. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1997;23(1–2):28–46.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Miranda MI, Bermudez-Rattoni F. Reversible inactivation of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis induces disruption of cortical acetylcholine release and acquisition, but not retrieval, of aversive memories. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96(11):6478–82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Miranda MI, Bermudez-Rattoni F. Reversible inactivation of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis induces disruption of cortical acetylcholine release and acquisition, but not retrieval, of aversive memories. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96(11):6478–82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Haam J, Yakel JL. Cholinergic modulation of the hippocampal region and memory function. J Neurochem. 2017;142(Suppl 2):111–21.PubMedCrossRef Haam J, Yakel JL. Cholinergic modulation of the hippocampal region and memory function. J Neurochem. 2017;142(Suppl 2):111–21.PubMedCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Brinkman SD, Gershon S. Measurement of cholinergic drug effects on memory in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging. 1983;4(2):139–45.PubMedCrossRef Brinkman SD, Gershon S. Measurement of cholinergic drug effects on memory in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging. 1983;4(2):139–45.PubMedCrossRef
65.
go back to reference Summers WK, et al. Oral tetrahydroaminoacridine in long-term treatment of senile dementia, Alzheimer type. N Engl J Med. 1986;315(20):1241–5.PubMedCrossRef Summers WK, et al. Oral tetrahydroaminoacridine in long-term treatment of senile dementia, Alzheimer type. N Engl J Med. 1986;315(20):1241–5.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Summers WK, et al. Use of THA in treatment of Alzheimer-like dementia: pilot study in twelve patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1981;16(2):145–53.PubMed Summers WK, et al. Use of THA in treatment of Alzheimer-like dementia: pilot study in twelve patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1981;16(2):145–53.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Cheignon C, et al. Oxidative stress and the amyloid beta peptide in Alzheimer's disease. Redox Biol. 2018;14:450–64.PubMedCrossRef Cheignon C, et al. Oxidative stress and the amyloid beta peptide in Alzheimer's disease. Redox Biol. 2018;14:450–64.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Sultana R, Butterfield DA. Redox proteomics studies of in vivo amyloid beta-peptide animal models of Alzheimer's disease: insight into the role of oxidative stress. Proteomics Clin Appl. 2008;2(5):685–96.PubMedCrossRef Sultana R, Butterfield DA. Redox proteomics studies of in vivo amyloid beta-peptide animal models of Alzheimer's disease: insight into the role of oxidative stress. Proteomics Clin Appl. 2008;2(5):685–96.PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Butterfield DA, et al. Roles of amyloid beta-peptide-associated oxidative stress and brain protein modifications in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007;43(5):658–77.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Butterfield DA, et al. Roles of amyloid beta-peptide-associated oxidative stress and brain protein modifications in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007;43(5):658–77.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Mohmmad Abdul H, et al. Mutations in amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 genes increase the basal oxidative stress in murine neuronal cells and lead to increased sensitivity to oxidative stress mediated by amyloid beta-peptide (1-42), HO and kainic acid: implications for Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem. 2006;96(5):1322–35.PubMedCrossRef Mohmmad Abdul H, et al. Mutations in amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 genes increase the basal oxidative stress in murine neuronal cells and lead to increased sensitivity to oxidative stress mediated by amyloid beta-peptide (1-42), HO and kainic acid: implications for Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem. 2006;96(5):1322–35.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Gibson GL, Allsop D, Austen BM. Induction of cellular oxidative stress by the beta-amyloid peptide involved in Alzheimer's disease. Protein Pept Lett. 2004;11(3):257–70.PubMedCrossRef Gibson GL, Allsop D, Austen BM. Induction of cellular oxidative stress by the beta-amyloid peptide involved in Alzheimer's disease. Protein Pept Lett. 2004;11(3):257–70.PubMedCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Butterfield DA, et al. Amyloid beta-peptide and amyloid pathology are central to the oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades under which Alzheimer's disease brain exists. J Alzheimers Dis. 2002;4(3):193–201.PubMedCrossRef Butterfield DA, et al. Amyloid beta-peptide and amyloid pathology are central to the oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades under which Alzheimer's disease brain exists. J Alzheimers Dis. 2002;4(3):193–201.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Butterfield DA, Lauderback CM. Lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in Alzheimer's disease brain: potential causes and consequences involving amyloid beta-peptide-associated free radical oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med. 2002;32(11):1050–60.PubMedCrossRef Butterfield DA, Lauderback CM. Lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in Alzheimer's disease brain: potential causes and consequences involving amyloid beta-peptide-associated free radical oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med. 2002;32(11):1050–60.PubMedCrossRef
74.
go back to reference Persson T, Popescu BO, Cedazo-Minguez A. Oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease: why did antioxidant therapy fail? Oxidative Med Cell Longev. 2014;2014:427318.CrossRef Persson T, Popescu BO, Cedazo-Minguez A. Oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease: why did antioxidant therapy fail? Oxidative Med Cell Longev. 2014;2014:427318.CrossRef
75.
go back to reference Teixeira J, et al. Alzheimer's disease and antioxidant therapy: how long how far? Curr Med Chem. 2013;20(24):2939–52.PubMedCrossRef Teixeira J, et al. Alzheimer's disease and antioxidant therapy: how long how far? Curr Med Chem. 2013;20(24):2939–52.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Caldwell CC, Yao J, Brinton RD. Targeting the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease: bioenergetic and mitochondrial opportunities. Neurotherapeutics. 2015;12(1):66–80.PubMedCrossRef Caldwell CC, Yao J, Brinton RD. Targeting the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease: bioenergetic and mitochondrial opportunities. Neurotherapeutics. 2015;12(1):66–80.PubMedCrossRef
77.
go back to reference Daulatzai MA. Cerebral hypoperfusion and glucose hypometabolism: key pathophysiological modulators promote neurodegeneration, cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Res. 2017;95(4):943–72.PubMedCrossRef Daulatzai MA. Cerebral hypoperfusion and glucose hypometabolism: key pathophysiological modulators promote neurodegeneration, cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Res. 2017;95(4):943–72.PubMedCrossRef
78.
80.
go back to reference Stephan AH, Barres BA, Stevens B. The complement system: an unexpected role in synaptic pruning during development and disease. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2012;35:369–89.PubMedCrossRef Stephan AH, Barres BA, Stevens B. The complement system: an unexpected role in synaptic pruning during development and disease. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2012;35:369–89.PubMedCrossRef
81.
82.
83.
go back to reference Erickson MA, Dohi K, Banks WA. Neuroinflammation: a common pathway in CNS diseases as mediated at the blood-brain barrier. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2012;19(2):121–30.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Erickson MA, Dohi K, Banks WA. Neuroinflammation: a common pathway in CNS diseases as mediated at the blood-brain barrier. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2012;19(2):121–30.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Banks WA. The blood-brain barrier in neuroimmunology: Tales of separation and assimilation. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;44:1–8.PubMedCrossRef Banks WA. The blood-brain barrier in neuroimmunology: Tales of separation and assimilation. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;44:1–8.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Collins SM, Surette M, Bercik P. The interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10(11):735–42.PubMedCrossRef Collins SM, Surette M, Bercik P. The interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10(11):735–42.PubMedCrossRef
86.
go back to reference Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13(10):701–12.PubMedCrossRef Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13(10):701–12.PubMedCrossRef
89.
91.
go back to reference Tomkovich S, Jobin C. Microbiota and host immune responses: a love-hate relationship. Immunology. 2016;147(1):1–10.PubMedCrossRef Tomkovich S, Jobin C. Microbiota and host immune responses: a love-hate relationship. Immunology. 2016;147(1):1–10.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Agace WW, McCoy KD. Regionalized development and maintenance of the intestinal adaptive immune landscape. Immunity. 2017;46(4):532–48.PubMedCrossRef Agace WW, McCoy KD. Regionalized development and maintenance of the intestinal adaptive immune landscape. Immunity. 2017;46(4):532–48.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Sudo N, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol. 2004;558(Pt 1):263–75.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Sudo N, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol. 2004;558(Pt 1):263–75.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
96.
go back to reference O'Mahony SM, et al. Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis. Behav Brain Res. 2015;277:32–48.PubMedCrossRef O'Mahony SM, et al. Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis. Behav Brain Res. 2015;277:32–48.PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Praveen V, Praveen S. Microbiome-gut-brain Axis: a pathway for improving brainstem serotonin homeostasis and successful autoresuscitation in SIDS-A novel hypothesis. Front Pediatr. 2016;4:136.PubMed Praveen V, Praveen S. Microbiome-gut-brain Axis: a pathway for improving brainstem serotonin homeostasis and successful autoresuscitation in SIDS-A novel hypothesis. Front Pediatr. 2016;4:136.PubMed
98.
go back to reference Jiang XG, et al. Research progress in anti-inflammation of vagus nerve and neurotransmitter ach. Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue. 2003;15(1):59–61.PubMed Jiang XG, et al. Research progress in anti-inflammation of vagus nerve and neurotransmitter ach. Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue. 2003;15(1):59–61.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Das UN. Vagus nerve stimulation, depression, and inflammation. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(9):2053–4.PubMedCrossRef Das UN. Vagus nerve stimulation, depression, and inflammation. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(9):2053–4.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Browning KN, Verheijden S, Boeckxstaens GE. The Vagus nerve in appetite regulation, mood, and intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2017;152(4):730–44.PubMedCrossRef Browning KN, Verheijden S, Boeckxstaens GE. The Vagus nerve in appetite regulation, mood, and intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2017;152(4):730–44.PubMedCrossRef
101.
go back to reference de Haan JJ, et al. Exploring the link between inflammation and the vagus nerve. J Intern Med. 2010;267(1):130–1.PubMedCrossRef de Haan JJ, et al. Exploring the link between inflammation and the vagus nerve. J Intern Med. 2010;267(1):130–1.PubMedCrossRef
102.
go back to reference Hoeger S, et al. Modulation of brain dead induced inflammation by vagus nerve stimulation. Am J Transplant. 2010;10(3):477–89.PubMedCrossRef Hoeger S, et al. Modulation of brain dead induced inflammation by vagus nerve stimulation. Am J Transplant. 2010;10(3):477–89.PubMedCrossRef
104.
go back to reference Gordon JI, et al. The human gut microbiota and undernutrition. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4(137):137ps12.PubMedCrossRef Gordon JI, et al. The human gut microbiota and undernutrition. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4(137):137ps12.PubMedCrossRef
105.
go back to reference Mitchell RW, et al. Fatty acid transport protein expression in human brain and potential role in fatty acid transport across human brain microvessel endothelial cells. J Neurochem. 2011;117(4):735–46.PubMed Mitchell RW, et al. Fatty acid transport protein expression in human brain and potential role in fatty acid transport across human brain microvessel endothelial cells. J Neurochem. 2011;117(4):735–46.PubMed
107.
go back to reference Zhao Y, Dua P, Lukiw WJ. Microbial sources of amyloid and relevance to Amyloidogenesis and Alzheimer's disease (AD). J Alzheimers Dis Parkinsonism. 2015;5(1):177.PubMedPubMedCentral Zhao Y, Dua P, Lukiw WJ. Microbial sources of amyloid and relevance to Amyloidogenesis and Alzheimer's disease (AD). J Alzheimers Dis Parkinsonism. 2015;5(1):177.PubMedPubMedCentral
110.
go back to reference Quigley EMM. Microbiota-brain-gut Axis and neurodegenerative diseases. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2017;17(12):94.PubMedCrossRef Quigley EMM. Microbiota-brain-gut Axis and neurodegenerative diseases. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2017;17(12):94.PubMedCrossRef
111.
go back to reference Cattaneo A, et al. Association of brain amyloidosis with pro-inflammatory gut bacterial taxa and peripheral inflammation markers in cognitively impaired elderly. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;49:60–8.PubMedCrossRef Cattaneo A, et al. Association of brain amyloidosis with pro-inflammatory gut bacterial taxa and peripheral inflammation markers in cognitively impaired elderly. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;49:60–8.PubMedCrossRef
112.
go back to reference Park AM, et al. Helicobacter pylori and gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis versus Alzheimer's disease: 10 pitfalls of microbiome studies. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol. 2017;8(3):215–32.PubMedCrossRef Park AM, et al. Helicobacter pylori and gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis versus Alzheimer's disease: 10 pitfalls of microbiome studies. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol. 2017;8(3):215–32.PubMedCrossRef
113.
go back to reference Chen F, et al. Could the gut microbiota reconcile the oral bioavailability conundrum of traditional herbs? J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:253–64.PubMedCrossRef Chen F, et al. Could the gut microbiota reconcile the oral bioavailability conundrum of traditional herbs? J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:253–64.PubMedCrossRef
114.
go back to reference Zheng X, et al. Thinking outside the brain for cognitive improvement: Is peripheral immunomodulation on the way? Neuropharmacology. 2015;96(Pt A):94–104.PubMedCrossRef Zheng X, et al. Thinking outside the brain for cognitive improvement: Is peripheral immunomodulation on the way? Neuropharmacology. 2015;96(Pt A):94–104.PubMedCrossRef
115.
go back to reference Yang WT, et al. Chinese herbal medicine for Alzheimer's disease: clinical evidence and possible mechanism of neurogenesis. Biochem Pharmacol. 2017;141:143–55.PubMedCrossRef Yang WT, et al. Chinese herbal medicine for Alzheimer's disease: clinical evidence and possible mechanism of neurogenesis. Biochem Pharmacol. 2017;141:143–55.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Alzheimer’s disease hypothesis and related therapies
Authors
Xiaoguang Du
Xinyi Wang
Meiyu Geng
Publication date
01-12-2018
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Translational Neurodegeneration / Issue 1/2018
Electronic ISSN: 2047-9158
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40035-018-0107-y

Other articles of this Issue 1/2018

Translational Neurodegeneration 1/2018 Go to the issue