Top

Published in:

01-06-2009 | Original Investigation

Age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions

Authors: Katharina Marlene Schnitzspahn, Matthias Kliegel

Published in: European Journal of Ageing | Issue 2/2009

Abstract

This study investigated age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults. The first aim was to explore this issue by examining event- and time-based prospective memory performance in two age groups: young-old (60–75 years) and old-old adults (76–90 years). Moreover, this study for the first time investigated whether forming implementation intentions could be used to improve prospective memory in young-old and old-old adults. Results showed a general effect of age in prospective memory performance for both task types. In addition, no general effect of implementation intentions in prospective memory performance across both task types and age groups was found. However, testing implementation intention effects separately for both age groups revealed that the formation of implementation intentions enhanced prospective memory only for the young-old adults, but did not substantially affect the performance in the time-based task and even impaired it in the event-based task for the old-old adults. Findings indicate that the formation of implementation intentions might be a powerful memory strategy for young-old adults, but not for the very old.

Applying an alternative analytical strategy suggested by an anonymous reviewer we z-standardized prospective memory scores and conducted an overall 2 (age) × 2 (instruction) × 2 (PM task) ANOVA which confirmed the critical age x instruction condition interaction (F(1,67) = 3.9, p ≤ 0.05).

We acknowledge an anonymous reviewer for raising this issue.

Brandstätter V, Lengfelder A, Gollwitzer PM (2001) Implementation intentions and efficient action initiation. J Pers Soc Psychol 81:946–960CrossRef

Chasteen AL, Park DC, Schwarz N (2001) Implementation intentions and facilitation of prospective memory. Psychol Sci 6:457–461CrossRef

Cherry KE, Plauche MF (2004) Age differences in prospective memory: role of task complexity and prospective support. In: Sohov S (ed) Advances in psychology research, vol 28. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp 28–41

Cohen AL, Gollwitzer PM (2008) The cost of remembering to remember: cognitive load and implementation intentions influence ongoing task performance. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London

Cohen AL, Bayer UC, Jaudas A, Gollwitzer PM (2008) Self-regulatory strategyand executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance. Psychol Res 72:12–26CrossRef

Craik FIM (1986) A functional account of age differences in memory. In: Clix F, Hagendorf H (eds) Human memory and cognitive capabilities: mechanisms and performances. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 409–422

Crovitz HF, Daniel WF (1984) Measurements of everyday memory: toward the prevention of forgetting. Bull Psychon Soc 22:413–414

Einstein GO, McDaniel MA (1990) Normal aging and prospective memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 16:717–726CrossRef

Einstein GO, McDaniel MA (1996) Retrieval processes in prospective memory: theoretical approaches and some new findings. In: Brandimonte M, Einstein GO, McDaniel MA (eds) Prospective memory: theory and applications. Erlbaum, New Jersey

Einstein GO, McDaniel MA, Richardson SL, Guynn MJ, Cunfer AR (1995) Aging and prospective memory: examining the influences of self-initiated retrieval processes. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 21:996–1007CrossRef

Einstein GO, McDaniel MA, Manzi M, Cochran B, Baker M (2001) Prospective memory and aging: forgetting intentions over short delays. Psychol Aging 15:671–683CrossRef

Ellis JA, Freeman JE (2008) Ten years on: realizing delayed intentions. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London

Ellis J, Kvavilashvili L (2000) Prospective memory in 2000: past, present, and future directions. Appl Cogn Psychol 14:S1–S9CrossRef

Gollwitzer PM (1993) Goal achievement: the role of intentions. Eur Rev Soc Psychol 4:141–185CrossRef

Gollwitzer PM (1999) Implementation intentions. Strong effects of simple plans. Am Psychol 54:493–503CrossRef

Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P (2006) Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 38:69–119CrossRef

Henry JD, MacLeod MS, Phillips LH, Crawford JR (2004) A metaanalytic review of prospective memory and aging. Psychol Aging 19:27–39CrossRef

Huppert FA, Johnson T, Nickson J (2000) High prevalence of prospective memory impairment in the elderly and in early-stage dementia: findings from a populationbased study. Appl Cogn Psychol 14:S63–S81CrossRef

Jacoby LL, Jennings JM, Hay JF (1996) Dissociating automatic and consciously controlled processes: implications for diagnosis and rehabilitation of memory deficits. In: Herrmann DJ, McEvoy CL, Hertzog C, Hertel P, Johnson MK (eds) Basic and applied memory research: vol. 1. Theory in context. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 161–193

Kliegel M, Jäger T (2006a) Delayed-execute prospective memory performance: the effects of age and working memory. Dev Neuropsychol 30:819–843CrossRef

Kliegel M, Jäger T (2006b) Die Entwicklung des prospektiven Gedächtnisses über die Lebensspanne. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie 38:162–174CrossRef

Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (2000) Plan formation, retention, and execution in prospective memory: a new approach and age-related effects. Mem Cogn 28:1041–1049

Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (2002) Complex prospective memory and executive control of working memory: a process model. Psychologische Beiträge 44:303–318

Kliegel M, Martin M, Moor C (2003) Prospective memory and ageing: is task importance relevant? Int J Psychol 38:207–214CrossRef

Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO, Moor C (2007) Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and old adults: the role of planning aids. Mem Cogn 35:1735–1746

Kliegel M, Brandenberger M, Aberle I (2009) Effect of motivational incentives on prospective memory performance in preschoolers. Eur J Dev Psychol (in press)

Kvavilashvili L, Fisher L (2007) Is time-based prospective remembering mediated by self-initiated rehearsals? Role of cues, ongoing activity, age and motivation. J Exp Psychol Gen 136:112–132CrossRef

Kvavilashvili L, Kornbrot DE, Mash V, Cockburn J, Milne A (2009) Differential effects of age on prospective and retrospective memory tasks in young, young-old and old-old adults. Memory (in press)

Lehrl S (1989) Mehrfachwahl-Wortschatz-Intelligenztest (MWT-B). Perimed, Erlangen

Lindenberger U, Gilberg R, Little TD, Nuthmann R, Pötter U, Baltes PB (1999) Sample selectivity and generalizability of the results of the Berlin aging study. In: Baltes PB, Mayer KU (eds) The Berlin aging study: aging from 70 to 100. Akademie Verlag, Berlin

Liu LL, Park DC (2004) Aging and medical adherence: the use of automatic processes to achieve effortful things. Psychol Aging 19:318–325CrossRef

Luszczynska A, Schwarzer R (2003) Planning and self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of breast self-examination: a longitudinal study on self- regulatory cognitions. Psychol Health 18:93–198CrossRef

Mäntylä T, Nilsson LG (1997) Remembering to remember in adulthood: a population-based study on aging and prospective memory. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 4:81–92CrossRef

Marsh RL, Hicks JL, Cook GI, Mayhorn CB (2007) Comparing older and younger adults in an event-based prospective memory paradigm containing an output monitoring component. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 14:168–188CrossRef

Martin M, Kliegel M, McDaniel MA (2003) The involvement of executive functions in prospective memory performance of adults. Int J Psychol 38:195–206CrossRef

Maylor EA (1990) Age and prospective memory. Q J Exp Psychol Hum Exp Psychol 42A:471–493

Maylor EA, Smith G, Della Sala S, Logie RH (2002) Prospective and retrospective memory in normal aging and dementia: an experimental study. Mem Cogn 30:871–884

McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (2000) Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: a multiprocess framework. Appl Cogn Psychol 14:S127–S144CrossRef

McDaniel MA, Einstein GO, Rendell PG (2008) The puzzle of inconsistent age- related declines in prospective memory: a multiprocess explanation. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London

Oswald WD, Fleischmann UM (1995) Nürnberger-Alters-Inventar (NAI). Testinventar & NAI-Testmanual und Textband (3 überarbeitete und ergänzte Auflage). Hogrefe, Göttingen

Park DC (1999) Aging and the controlled and automatic processing of medical information and medical intentions. In: Park DC, Morrell RW, Shifren K (eds) Processing of medical information in aging patients: cognitive and human factors perspective. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 3–22

Park DC (2000) The basic mechanism, accounting for age-related decline in cognitive function. In: Park DC, Schwarz N (eds) Cognitive aging: a primer. Psychology Press, Philadelphia, pp 3–21

Powers TA, Koestner R, Topciu RA (2005) Implementation intentions, perfectionism, and goal progress: perhaps the road to hell is paved with good intentions. Personal Soc Psychol Bull 32:902–912CrossRef

Reese CM, Cherry KE (2002) The effects of age, ability, and memory monitoring on prospective memory task performance. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 9:98–113CrossRef

Rendell PG, Thomson DM (1999) Aging and prospective memory: differences between naturalistic and laboratory tasks. J Gerontol Psychol Sci 54B:256–269

Salthouse TA (1982) Adult cognition: an experimental psychology of human aging. Springer, New York

Salthouse TA (1985) A theory of cognitive aging. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Singer T, Lindenberger U, Baltes PB (2003) Plasticity of memory for new learning in very old age: a story of major loss? Psychol Aging 18:306–317CrossRef

Smith RE, Bayen UJ (2006) The source of adult age differences in event-based prospective memory: a multinomial modelling approach. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 32:623–635CrossRef

Sniehotta FF, Scholz U, Schwarzer R (2005) Bridging the intention-behaviour gap: planning, self-efficacy, and action control in the adoption and maintenance of physical exercise. Psychol Health 20:143–160CrossRef

Terry WS (1988) Everyday forgetting: data from a diary study. Psychol Rep 62:299–303

Uttl B, Graf P, Miller J, Tuokko H (2001) Pro- and retrospective memory in late adulthood. Conscious Cogn 10:451–472CrossRef

Verplanken B, Faes S (1999) Good intentions, bad habits, and effects of forming implementation intentions on healthy eating. Eur J Soc Psychol 29:591–604CrossRef

Wechsler D (1981) Manual for theWechsler adult intelligence scale—revised. Psychol Corp, New York

West R, Craik FIM (2001) Influences on the efficiency of prospective memory in younger and older adults. Psychol Aging 16:682–696CrossRef

Yang L, Krampe RT, Baltes PB (2006) Basic forms of cognitive plasticity extended into the oldest-old: retest learning, age, and cognitive functioning. Psychol Aging 21:372–378CrossRef

Zeintl M, Kliegel M, Hofer SM (2007) The role of processing resources in age-related prospective and retrospective memory within old age. Psychol Aging 22:826–834CrossRef

Zimmerman TD, Meier B (2006) The rise and decline of prospective memory performance across the lifespan. Q J Exp Psychol 59:2040–2046CrossRef

Title: Age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions
Authors: Katharina Marlene Schnitzspahn
Matthias Kliegel
Publication date: 01-06-2009
Publisher: Springer-Verlag
Published in: European Journal of Ageing / Issue 2/2009
Print ISSN: 1613-9372
Electronic ISSN: 1613-9380
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-009-0116-x

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions

Abstract

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 2/2009

Moving in and out of public old age care among the very old in Sweden

Older adult loneliness: myths and realities

The home environment and quality of life-related outcomes in advanced old age: findings of the ENABLE-AGE project

European perspectives on quality of life in old age

Welfare states and quality of later life: distributions and predictions in a comparative perspective

Care-related quality of life in old age