Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ASCO Annual Meeting 2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

2024 ASCO Annual Meeting

Keep up to date with all the top stories and latest evidence with our hub page, including official congress videos and expert takeaways.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports
Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 8/2023

19-06-2023

Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a Narrative Review of Biological Mechanisms, Treatments, and Outcomes

Authors: Antonio F. Pagán, Yazmine P. Huizar, Tucker R. Short, Zoe Gotcher, Adam T. Schmidt

Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports | Issue 8/2023

Login to get access

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous and complex neurodevelopmental disorder related to disruptions in various neuronal structures and pathways, dopamine (DA) transporter, and receptor genes, resulting in cognitive and regulation deficits. This article reviews recent research on the biological mechanisms and markers, clinical manifestations, treatments, and outcomes of adult ADHD as well as current controversies within the field.

Recent Findings

New research identifies white matter disruptions in multiple cortical pathways in adults with ADHD. New treatments for ADHD in adults such as viloxazine ER have shown preliminary effectiveness in addition to research showing transcranial direct current stimulation can be an effective treatment for adults with ADHD.

Summary

Although questions exist about the effectiveness of current assessments of and treatments for adult ADHD, recent findings represent a step towards improving the quality of life and outcomes for individuals experiencing this life-long, chronic health condition.
Literature
1.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders [Internet]. In: DSM-5-TR. American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 2022. Available from: https://​psychiatryonline​.​org/​doi/​book/​10.​1176/​appi.​books.​9780890425787.​
2.•
Song P, Zha M, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Li X, Rudan I. The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2021;11:04009. This study represents a significant step forward in understanding the global prevalence rate in ADHD. Persistent ADHD across the globe was 2.58%.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
3.
Fayyad J, Sampson NA, Hwang I, Adamowski T, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, et al. The descriptive epidemiology of DSM-IV adult ADHD in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. ADHD Atten Def Hyp Disord. 2017;9:47–65.CrossRef
4.
Faraone SV, Larsson H. Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;24:562–75.PubMedCrossRef
5.
Makris N, Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Seidman LJ. Towards conceptualizing a neural systems-based anatomy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Dev Neurosci. 2009;31:36–49.PubMedCrossRef
6.••
Barkley RA. ADHD adversely impacts health, mortality risk, and estimated life expectancy by adulthood. ADHD Rep. 2020;28(1-4):14. The author conducted a cumulative risk assessment based on data from 14 variables related to ADHD, including health and lifestyle patterns. The findings were that accidental injury and death by suicide were significant factors, leading to an 11.1-year reduction in life expectancy for individuals with ADHD into adulthood.
7.
Barkley RA, editor. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment. Fourth edition. Paperback ed. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2018.
8.
Wu J, Xiao H, Sun H, Zou L, Zhu L-Q. Role of dopamine receptors in ADHD: a systematic meta-analysis. Mol Neurobiol. 2012;45:605–20.PubMedCrossRef
9.
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Newcorn JH, Kollins SH, Wigal TL, Telang F, et al. Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Mol Psychiatry. 2011;16:1147–54.PubMedCrossRef
10.
Mehta TR, Monegro A, Nene Y, Fayyaz M, Bollu PC. Neurobiology of ADHD: a review. Curr Dev Disord Rep. 2019;6:235–40.CrossRef
11.
Visser SN, Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Holbrook JR, Kogan MD, Ghandour RM, et al. Trends in the parent-report of health care provider-diagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003–2011. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53:34–46.e2.PubMedCrossRef
12.
Caye A, Spadini AV, Karam RG, Grevet EH, Rovaris DL, Bau CHD, et al. Predictors of persistence of ADHD into adulthood: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25:1151–9.PubMedCrossRef
13.
Gregory AM, Agnew-Blais JC, Matthews T, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L. ADHD and sleep quality: longitudinal analyses from childhood to early adulthood in a twin cohort. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2017;46:284–94.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Beach VL, Gissandaner TD, Schmidt AT. The UPPS model of impulsivity and suicide: a systematic literature review. Arch Suicide Res. 2022;26:985–1006.PubMedCrossRef
15.
London AS, Landes SD. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and adult mortality. Prev Med. 2016;90:8–10.PubMedCrossRef
16.
Schjøtt J, Heitmann K, Bakkebø T, Jahnsen JA. Review of questions concerning clinical drug interactions in ADHD treatment from physicians in Norway. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:607915.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
17.
18.
Varrasi S, Boccaccio FM, Guerrera CS, Platania GA, Pirrone C, Castellano S. Schooling and occupational outcomes in adults with ADHD: predictors of success and support strategies for effective learning. Educ Sci. 2022;13:37.CrossRef
19.
Richmond-Rakerd LS, Caspi A, Ambler A, d’Arbeloff T, De Bruine M, Elliott M, et al. Childhood self-control forecasts the pace of midlife aging and preparedness for old age. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021;118:e2010211118.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
20.
Maloney KA, Schmidt AT. Juvenile delinquency and antisocial behavior: a brief overview of theories, definitions, and statistics. The SAGE encyclopedia of criminal psychology: SAGE Publications; 2019.
21.
Schmidt AT, Beers SR, Levin HS. Rehabilitation and outcome of head injuries. Principles and practice of pediatric neurosurgery. Thieme Medical Publishers; 2014. p. 737–49.
22.
Kooij JJS, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balázs J, et al. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. Eur psychiatr. 2019;56:14–34.CrossRef
23.
Aita SL, Sofko CA, Hill BD, Musso MW, Boettcher AC. Utility of the Personality Assessment Inventory in detecting feigned attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the Feigned Adult ADHD Index. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2018;33:832–44.PubMedCrossRef
24.
Barkley RA. Neuropsychological testing is not useful in the diagnosis of ADHD: stop it (or prove it)! ADHD Rep. 2019;27:1–8.
25.•
Pagán AF, Huizar YP, Schmidt AT. Conner’s continuous performance test and adult ADHD: a systematic literature review. J Atten Disord. 2023;27:231–49. The authors reviewed 35 articles which utilized the Conner’s continuous performance test for adults with ADHD. Findings indicated that reliability and discriminant and ecological validity were moderate with mixed sensitivity and specificityPubMedCrossRef
26.
Huang J, Ahlers E, Bogatsch H, Böhme P, Ethofer T, Fallgatter AJ, et al. The role of comorbid depressive symptoms on long-range temporal correlations in resting EEG in adults with ADHD. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2022;272:1421–35.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
27.
Nikolas MA, Marshall P, Hoelzle JB. The role of neurocognitive tests in the assessment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Assess. 2019;31:685–98.PubMedCrossRef
28.
Grogan K, Gormley CI, Rooney B, Whelan R, Kiiski H, Naughton M, et al. Differential diagnosis and comorbidity of ADHD and anxiety in adults. Br J Clin Psychol. 2018;57:99–115.PubMedCrossRef
29.
Grant AF, Lace JW, Teague CL, Lowell KT, Ruppert PD, Garner AA, et al. Detecting feigned symptoms of depression, anxiety, and ADHD, in college students with the structured inventory of malingered symptomatology. Appl Neuropsychol Adult. 2022;29:443–51.PubMedCrossRef
30.
Asherson P, Young AH, Eich-Höchli D, Moran P, Porsdal V, Deberdt W. Differential diagnosis, comorbidity, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults. Curr Med Res Opin. 2014;30:1657–72.PubMedCrossRef
31.
Ohnishi T, Kobayashi H, Yajima T, Koyama T, Noguchi K. Psychiatric comorbidities in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: prevalence and patterns in the routine clinical setting. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2019;16:11–6.PubMedPubMedCentral
32.
Maloney KA, Schmidt AT. Psychological assessment in medical settings: overview and practice implications. In: The Wiley encyclopedia of health psychology, volume III: Clinical health psychology & behavioral medicine. John Wiley & Sons; 2021. p. 235–44.
33.
Alexander L, Farrelly N. Attending to adult ADHD: a review of the neurobiology behind adult ADHD. Ir J Psychol Med. 2018;35:237–44.PubMedCrossRef
34.
Hegerl U, Hensch T. The vigilance regulation model of affective disorders and ADHD. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;44:45–57.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Baroni A, Castellanos FX. Neuroanatomic and cognitive abnormalities in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the era of ‘high definition’ neuroimaging. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2015;30:1–8.PubMedCrossRef
36.
Kofler MJ, Alderson RM, Raiker JS, Bolden J, Sarver DE, Rapport MD. Working memory and intraindividual variability as neurocognitive indicators in ADHD: examining competing model predictions. Neuropsychol. 2014;28:459–71.CrossRef
37.
Gawrilow C, Kuhnhausen J, Schmid J, Stadler G. Hyperactivity and motoric activity in ADHD: characterization, assessment, and intervention. Front Psychiatry [Internet]. 2014;5 Available from: http://​journal.​frontiersin.​org/​article/​10.​3389/​fpsyt.​2014.​00171/​abstract
38.
Killeen PR. Models of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Process. 2019;162:205–14.CrossRef
39.
Matthews M, Nigg JT, Fair DA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In: Andersen SL, Pine DS, editors. The neurobiology of childhood [Internet]. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2013. p. 235–66. Available from: http://​link.​springer.​com/​10.​1007/​978-3-662-45758-0_​249.​CrossRef
40.
Jadidian A, Hurley RA, Taber KH. Neurobiology of adult ADHD: emerging evidence for network dysfunctions. JNP. 2015;27:173–8.CrossRef
41.
Janssen TWP, Hillebrand A, Gouw A, Geladé K, Van Mourik R, Maras A, et al. Neural network topology in ADHD; evidence for maturational delay and default-mode network alterations. Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128:2258–67.PubMedCrossRef
42.••
. Yu M, Gao X, Niu X, Zhang M, Yang Z, Han S, et al. Meta-analysis of structural and functional alterations of brain in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Psychiatry. 2023;13:1070142. The authors reviewed 29 VBM studies and 36 fMRI studies which found key structural and functional alterations in the left superior frontal gyrus and the corpus callosumPubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
43.
Bralten J, Greven CU, Franke B, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, Rommelse NNJ, et al. Voxel-based morphometry analysis reveals frontal brain differences in participants with ADHD and their unaffected siblings. Jpn. 2016;41:272–9.PubMedCrossRef
44.
Maier S, Philipsen A, Perlov E, Runge K, Matthies S, Ebert D, et al. Left insular cortical thinning differentiates the inattentive and combined subtype of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatry Res. 2023;159:196–204.CrossRef
45.
Cao Y, Xie H, Sun H, Xiao H, Long X, Qiu C, et al. Common and distinct patterns of gray matter alterations in young adults with borderline personality disorder and major depressive disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2022;272:1569–82.PubMedCrossRef
46.•
. Jones SA, Tipsord J, Nagel BJ, Nigg JT. A preliminary study of white matter correlates of a laboratory measure of attention and motor stability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatric Res. 2023;160:110–6. In a new measure of ADHD attention and motor behavior (the QbTest), associations were found between motor activity and inattention and MRI findings, including differences in primary motor cortex white matterCrossRef
47.•
Chiang H-L, Tseng W-YI, Tseng W-L, Tung Y-H, Hsu Y-C, Chen C-L, et al. Atypical development in white matter microstructures in ADHD: a longitudinal diffusion imaging study. Asian J Psychiatr. 2023;79:103358. The ADHD groups showed abnormalities in white matter microstructures, supporting the delayed brain maturation hypothesisPubMedCrossRef
48.
Marcos-Vidal L, Martínez-García M, Martín de Blas D, Navas-Sánchez FJ, Pretus C, Ramos-Quiroga JA, et al. Local functional connectivity as a parsimonious explanation of the main frameworks for ADHD in medication-naïve adults. J Atten Disord. 2022;26:1788–801.PubMedCrossRef
49.
Perugi G, De Rosa U, Barbuti M. What value do norepinephrine/dopamine dual reuptake inhibitors have to the current treatment of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatment armamentarium? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2022;23:1975–8.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Sörös P, Hoxhaj E, Borel P, Sadohara C, Feige B, Matthies S, et al. Hyperactivity/restlessness is associated with increased functional connectivity in adults with ADHD: a dimensional analysis of resting state fMRI. BMC Psychiatry. 2019;19:43.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
51.
Cao H. Prefrontal-cerebellar dynamics during post-success and post-error cognitive controls in major psychiatric disorders. Psychol Med. 2022:1–8.
52.
Dibbets P, Evers EAT, Hurks PPM, Bakker K, Jolles J. Differential brain activation patterns in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) associated with task switching. Neuropsychol. 2010;24:413–23.CrossRef
53.
Salomone S, Fleming GR, Bramham J, O’Connell RG, Robertson IH. Neuropsychological deficits in adult ADHD: evidence for differential attentional impairments, deficient executive functions, and high self-reported functional impairments. J Atten Disord. 2020;24:1413–24.PubMedCrossRef
54.
55.
Férat V, Arns M, Deiber M-P, Hasler R, Perroud N, Michel CM, et al. Electroencephalographic microstates as novel functional biomarkers for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2022;7:814–23.PubMed
56.
Misiak B, Wójta-Kempa M, Samochowiec J, Schiweck C, Aichholzer M, Reif A, et al. Peripheral blood inflammatory markers in patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2022;118:110581.PubMedCrossRef
57.
Yang LL, Stiernborg M, Skott E, Söderström Å, Giacobini M, Lavebratt C. Proinflammatory mediators and their associations with medication and comorbid traits in children and adults with ADHD. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2020;41:118–31.PubMedCrossRef
58.
Anand D, Colpo GD, Zeni G, Zeni CP, Teixeira AL. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and inflammation: what does current knowledge tell us? A systematic review. Front Psychiatry. 2017;8:228.PubMedCrossRef
59.••
Nobukawa S, Shirama A, Takahashi T, Takeda T, Ohta H, Kikuchi M, et al. Identification of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder based on the complexity and symmetricity of pupil diameter. Sci Rep. 2021;11:8439. The authors utilized pupil diameter analyses to assist in the diagnosis of adult ADHD. Low temporal complexity in addition to large diameters of pupils was associated with ADHD in this sample which may provide an addition tool for the diagnosis of adult ADHDPubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
60.
National Guideline Centre. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management [Internet]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); 2019. Available from: http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​books/​NBK493361/​
61.
Elliott J, Johnston A, Husereau D, Kelly SE, Eagles C, Charach A, et al. Pharmacologic treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Gluud C, editor. PLoS ONE. 2020; 15: e0240584.
62.
da Silva BS, Grevet EH, Silva LCF, Ramos JKN, Rovaris DL, Bau CHD. An overview on neurobiology and therapeutics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Discov Ment Health. 2023;3:2.CrossRef
63.
Cortese S, Adamo N, Del Giovane C, Mohr-Jensen C, Hayes AJ, Carucci S, et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5:727–38.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
64.•
Faraone SV, Gomeni R, Hull JT, Chaturvedi SA, Busse GD, Melyan Z, et al. Predicting efficacy of viloxazine extended-release treatment in adults with ADHD using an early change in ADHD symptoms: machine learning post hoc analysis of a phase 3 clinical trial. Psychiatry Res. 2022;318:114922. The authors examined the response of adults to viloxazine ER, a new nonstimulant recently approved for adultsPubMedCrossRef
65.
Nasser A, Hull JT, Chaturvedi SA, Liranso T, Odebo O, Kosheleff AR, et al. A phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial assessing the efficacy and safety of viloxazine extended-release capsules in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs. 2022;36:897–915.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
66.
Chang Z, Ghirardi L, Quinn PD, Asherson P, D’Onofrio BM, Larsson H. Risks and benefits of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medication on behavioral and neuropsychiatric outcomes: a qualitative review of pharmacoepidemiology studies using linked prescription databases. Biol Psychiatry. 2019;86:335–43.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
67.
Boland H, DiSalvo M, Fried R, Woodworth KY, Wilens T, Faraone SV, et al. A literature review and meta-analysis on the effects of ADHD medications on functional outcomes. J Psychiatr Res. 2020;123:21–30.PubMedCrossRef
68.
Tamminga HGH, Reneman L, Huizenga HM, Geurts HM. Effects of methylphenidate on executive functioning in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan: a meta-regression analysis. Psychol Med. 2016;46:1791–807.PubMedCrossRef
69.
Armstrong-Hoskowitz N, Schmidt AT, Henderson CE, Nelson DV, Allen BJ. A field study of the impact of psychotropic medication on delinquency and juvenile justice system involvement among a high risk sample of children and adolescents. J Offender Rehabil. 2020;59:334–53.CrossRef
70.
Craig SG, Davies G, Schibuk L, Weiss MD, Hechtman L. Long-term effects of stimulant treatment for ADHD: what can we tell our patients? Curr Dev Disord Rep. 2015;2:1–9.CrossRef
71.
Rubia K, Alegria A, Brinson H. Imaging the ADHD brain: disorder-specificity, medication effects and clinical translation. Expert Rev Neurother. 2014;14:519–38.PubMedCrossRef
72.
Shaw P, Sharp WS, Morrison M, Eckstrand K, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS, et al. Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. AJP. 2009;166:58–63.CrossRef
73.
Frodl T, Skokauskas N. Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects: meta-analysis of structural MRI ADHD studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2012;125:114–26.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, et al. Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging–based neuroimaging studies. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:902–17.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
75.
Hoogman M, Bralten J, Hibar DP, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, Schweren LSJ, et al. Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: a cross-sectional mega-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4:310–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
76.
Hoogman M, Muetzel R, Guimaraes JP, Shumskaya E, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, et al. Brain imaging of the cortex in ADHD: a coordinated analysis of large-scale clinical and population-based samples. AJP. 2019;176:531–42.CrossRef
77.
Castellanos FX. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA. 2002;288:1740.PubMedCrossRef
78.
Cunill R, Castells X, Tobias A, Capellà D. Atomoxetine for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the adulthood: a meta-analysis and meta-regression: atomoxetine discontinuation in adult ADHD. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2013;22:961–9.PubMedCrossRef
79.
80.••
Rodrigues da Silva PH, Leffa DT, Luethi MS, Rohde LA, Brunoni AR. Associations between brain morphology and transcranial direct current stimulation as treatment of inattention in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Stimul. 2023;16:350. A new treatment called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was evaluated in terms of changes in brain volume or cortical thickness. Changes were found in the superior frontal cortex and decreases in subjective ADHD inattentive scores were associated with higher cortical thicknessCrossRef
81.
Corbisiero S, Bitto H, Newark P, Abt-Mörstedt B, Elsässer M, Buchli-Kammermann J, et al. A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy vs. pharmacotherapy alone in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—a randomized controlled trial. Front. Psychiatry. 2018;9:571.
82.
Krinzinger H, Hall CL, Groom MJ, Ansari MT, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar JK, et al. Neurological and psychiatric adverse effects of long-term methylphenidate treatment in ADHD: a map of the current evidence. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;107:945–68.PubMedCrossRef
83.
Nimmo-Smith V, Merwood A, Hank D, Brandling J, Greenwood R, Skinner L, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for adult ADHD: a systematic review. Psychol Med. 2020;50:529–41.PubMedCrossRef
84.
85.
Breda V, Cerqueira RO, Ceolin G, Koning E, Fabe J, McDonald A, et al. Is there a place for dietetic interventions in adult ADHD? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2022;119:110613.PubMedCrossRef
86.
Iliodromiti Z, Triantafyllou A-R, Tsaousi M, Pouliakis A, Petropoulou C, Sokou R, et al. Gut microbiome and neurodevelopmental disorders: a link yet to be disclosed. Microorganisms. 2023;11:487.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
87.
Barkley RA. Is there an adult onset type of ADHD? Issues in establishing persistence and remission of ADHD from childhood to adulthood. ADHD Rep. 2016;24(6-7):13–4.
88.
Taylor LE, Kaplan-Kahn EA, Lighthall RA, Antshel KM. Adult-onset ADHD: a critical analysis and alternative explanations. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2022;53:635–53.PubMedCrossRef
89.
Barkley RA. Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale-IV (BAARS-IV). New York: Guilford Press; 2011.
90.
Becker SP, Langberg JM, Luebbe AM, Dvorsky MR, Flannery AJ. Sluggish Cognitive Tempo is associated with academic functioning and internalizing symptoms in college students with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: SCT in college students. J Clin Psychol. 2014;70:388–403.PubMedCrossRef
91.
Becker S, Barkley RA. Sluggish cognitive tempo. Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2018. p. 147–53.
92.
93.
Asherson P. Drug treatments for ADHD reduce risk of substance use disorders. AJP. 2017;174:827–8.CrossRef
94.
95.
Caye A, Rocha TB-M, Anselmi L, Murray J, Menezes AMB, Barros FC, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder trajectories from childhood to young adulthood: evidence from a birth cohort supporting a late-onset syndrome. JAMA. Psychiatry. 2016;73:705.
96.
Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ. Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration. Pharmacother. 2006;26:1501–10.CrossRef
97.
Wilens T, Zulauf C, Martelon M, Morrison NR, Simon A, Carrellas NW, et al. Nonmedical stimulant use in college students: association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77:940–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
98.
Upadhyaya HP, Rose K, Wang W, O’Rourke K, Sullivan B, Deas D, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, medication treatment, and substance use patterns among adolescents and young adults. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005;15:799–809.PubMedCrossRef
99.
Schoretsanitis G, de Leon J, Eap CB, Kane JM, Paulzen M. Clinically significant drug–drug interactions with agents for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs. 2019;33:1201–22.PubMedCrossRef
100.••
Carucci S, Narducci C, Bazzoni M, Balia C, Donno F, Gagliano A, et al. Clinical characteristics, neuroimaging findings, and neuropsychological functioning in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: sex differences. J of Neuroscience Res. 2022:25038. The authors of this article examined the neurological structure and functioning of ADHD across sex. Researchers found that studies included male participants at disproportionately higher levels but some differences in memory and visual-spatial deficits were found in females
101.
Mooney MA, Bhatt P, Hermosillo RJM, Ryabinin P, Nikolas M, Faraone SV, et al. Smaller total brain volume but not subcortical structure volume related to common genetic risk for ADHD. Psychol Med. 2021;51:1279–88.PubMedCrossRef
102.
Agoalikum E, Klugah-Brown B, Wu H, Jing J, Biswal BB. Gender differences in dynamic functional network connectivity in pediatric and adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Connect. 2023;2022:69.
Metadata
Title
Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a Narrative Review of Biological Mechanisms, Treatments, and Outcomes
Authors
Antonio F. Pagán
Yazmine P. Huizar
Tucker R. Short
Zoe Gotcher
Adam T. Schmidt
Publication date
19-06-2023
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports / Issue 8/2023
Print ISSN: 1528-4042
Electronic ISSN: 1534-6293
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-023-01280-4