The future of patient-derived tumor xenografts in cancer treatment

Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest

References

• 1 Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America. www.phrma.org.
  Google Scholar
• 2 Challenges and Opportunities Report – March 2004. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. www.fda.gov/ScienceResearch/SpecialTopics/CriticalPathInitiative/CriticalPathOpportunitiesReports/ucm077262.htm.
  Google Scholar
• 3 Gan HK, You B, Pond GR et al. Assumptions of expected benefits in randomized Phase III trials evaluating systemic treatments for cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 104(8), 590–598 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 4 Wilding JL, Bodmer WF. Cancer cell lines for drug discovery and development. Cancer Res. 74(9), 2377–2384 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 5 Johnson JI, Decker S, Zaharevitz D et al. Relationships between drug activity in NCI preclinical in vitro and in vivo models and early clinical trials. Br. J. Cancer 84(10), 1424–1431 (2001).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 6 Daniel VC, Marchionni L, Hierman JS et al. A primary xenograft model of small-cell lung cancer reveals irreversible changes in gene expression imposed by culture in vitro. Cancer Res. 69(8), 3364–3373 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 7 Tveit KM, Pihl A. Do cell lines in vitro reflect the properties of the tumours of origin? A study of lines derived from human melanoma xenografts. Br. J. Cancer 44(6), 775–86 (1981).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 8 Alsinet C, Cornella H, Villanueva A. Genetically engineered mouse models: future tools to predict clinical trial results in oncology? Future Oncol. 9(6), 767–70 (2013).
  CASGoogle Scholar
• 9 Sausville EA, Burger AM. Contributions of human tumor xenografts to anticancer drug development. Cancer Res. 66(7), 3351–3354, discussion 3354 (2006).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 10 Singh M, Ferrara N. Modeling and predicting clinical efficacy for drugs targeting the tumor milieu. Nat. Biotechnol. 30(7), 648–657 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 11 Kameya T, Shimosato Y, Tumuraya M et al. Human gastric choriocarcinoma serially transplanted in nude mice. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 56(2), 325–332 (1976).• The first articles reporting the successful transplantation of human tumors in nude mice.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 12 Shimosato Y, Kameya T, Nagai K et al. Transplantation of human tumors in nude mice. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 56(6), 1251–1260 (1976).• The first articles reporting the successful transplantation of human tumors in nude mice.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 13 Tentler JJ, Tan AC, Weekes CD et al. Patient-derived tumour xenografts as models for oncology drug development. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 9(6), 338–350 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 14 Morton CL, Houghton PJ. Establishment of human tumor xenografts in immunodeficient mice. Nat. Protoc. 2(2), 247–250 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 15 Jin K, Teng L, Shen Y et al. Patient-derived human tumour tissue xenografts in immunodeficient mice: a systematic review. Clin. Transl. Oncol. 12(7), 473–480 (2010).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 16 Siolas D, Hannon GJ. Patient-derived tumor xenografts: transforming clinical samples into mouse models. Cancer Res. 73(17), 5315–5319 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 17 Cutz JC, Guan J, Bayani J et al. Establishment in severe combined immunodeficiency mice of subrenal capsule xenografts and transplantable tumor lines from a variety of primary human lung cancers: potential models for studying tumor progression-related changes. Clin. Cancer Res. 12(13), 4043–4054 (2006).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 18 Lee CH, Xue H, Sutcliffe M et al. Establishment of subrenal capsule xenografts of primary human ovarian tumors in SCID mice: potential models. Gynecol. Oncol. 96(1), 48–55 (2005).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 19 Wang Y, Revelo MP, Sudilovsky D et al. Development and characterization of efficient xenograft models for benign and malignant human prostate tissue. Prostate 64(2), 149–159 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 20 Rubio-Viqueira B, Hidalgo M. Direct in vivo xenograft tumor model for predicting chemotherapeutic drug response in cancer patients. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 85(2), 217–221 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 21 Xia TS, Wang J, Yin H et al. Human tissue-specific microenvironment: an essential requirement for mouse models of breast cancer. Oncol. Rep. 24(1), 203–211 (2010).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 22 Wilmanns C, Fan D, Obrian C et al. Modulation of Doxorubicin sensitivity and level of p-glycoprotein expression in human colon-carcinoma cells by ectopic and orthotopic environments in nude-mice. Int. J. Oncol. 3(3), 413–422 (1993).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 23 Lock RB, Liem N, Farnsworth ML et al. The nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) mouse model of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveals intrinsic differences in biologic characteristics at diagnosis and relapse. Blood 99(11), 4100–4108 (2002).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 24 Baccelli I, Schneeweiss A, Riethdorf S et al. Identification of a population of blood circulating tumor cells from breast cancer patients that initiates metastasis in a xenograft assay. Nat. Biotechnol. 31(6), 539–544 (2013).• Application of patient-derived xenograftmodel to identify tumor circulating cells.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 25 Bertotti A, Migliardi G, Galimi F et al. A molecularly annotated platform of patient-derived xenografts (“xenopatients”) identifies HER2 as an effective therapeutic target in cetuximab-resistant colorectal cancer. Cancer Discov. 1(6), 508–523 (2011).• Successful examples of a co-clinical trial.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 26 Bogachek MV, Park JM, De Andrade JP et al. A novel animal model for locally advanced breast cancer. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 22(3), 866–873 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 27 Mohseni MJ, Amanpour S, Muhammadnejad S et al. Establishment of a patient-derived Wilms’ tumor xenograft model: a promising tool for individualized cancer therapy. J. Pediatr. Urol. 10(1), 123–129 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 28 Zhang H, Cohen AL, Krishnakumar S et al. Patient-derived xenografts of triple-negative breast cancer reproduce molecular features of patient tumors and respond to mTOR inhibition. Breast Cancer Res. 16(2), R36 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 29 Zhao X, Liu Z, Yu L et al. Global gene expression profiling confirms the molecular fidelity of primary tumor-based orthotopic xenograft mouse models of medulloblastoma. Neuro. Oncol. 14(5), 574–583 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 30 de Plater L, Lauge A, Guyader C et al. Establishment and characterisation of a new breast cancer xenograft obtained from a woman carrying a germline BRCA2 mutation. Br. J. Cancer 103(8), 1192–200 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 31 Fichtner I, Rolff J, Soong R et al. Establishment of patient-derived non-small cell lung cancer xenografts as models for the identification of predictive biomarkers. Clin. Cancer Res. 14(20), 6456–6468 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 32 Karam JA, Zhang XY, Tamboli P et al. Development and characterization of clinically relevant tumor models from patients with renal cell carcinoma. Eur. Urol. 59(4), 619–628 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 33 Merk J, Rolff J, Becker M et al. Patient-derived xenografts of non-small-cell lung cancer: a pre-clinical model to evaluate adjuvant chemotherapy? Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 36(3), 454–459 (2009).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 34 Rubio-Viqueira B, Jimeno A, Cusatis G et al. An in vivo platform for translational drug development in pancreatic cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 12(15), 4652–4661 (2006).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 35 Terziyska N, Castro Alves C, Groiss V et al. In vivo imaging enables high resolution preclinical trials on patients’ leukemia cells growing in mice. PLoS ONE 7(12), e52798 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 36 Uronis JM, Osada T, McCall S et al. Histological and molecular evaluation of patient-derived colorectal cancer explants. PLoS ONE 7(6), e38422 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 37 Dangles-Marie V, Pocard M, Richon S et al. Establishment of human colon cancer cell lines from fresh tumors versus xenografts: comparison of success rate and cell line features. Cancer Res. 67(1), 398–407 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 38 Bogner PN, Patnaik SK, Pitoniak R et al. Lung cancer xenografting alters microRNA profile but not immunophenotype. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 386(2), 305–310 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 39 Ding L, Ellis MJ, Li S et al. Genome remodelling in a basal-like breast cancer metastasis and xenograft. Nature 464(7291), 999–1005 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 40 Reyal F, Guyader C, Decraene C et al. Molecular profiling of patient-derived breast cancer xenografts. Breast Cancer Res. 14(1), R11 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 41 Hidalgo M, Amant F, Biankin AV et al. Patient-derived xenograft models: an emerging platform for translational cancer research. Cancer Discov. 4(9), 998–1013 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 42 Garrido-Laguna I, Uson M, Rajeshkumar NV et al. Tumor engraftment in nude mice and enrichment in stroma- related gene pathways predict poor survival and resistance to gemcitabine in patients with pancreatic cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 17(17), 5793–5800 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 43 Raheem O, Kulidjian AA, Wu C et al. A novel patient-derived intra-femoral xenograft model of bone metastatic prostate cancer that recapitulates mixed osteolytic and osteoblastic lesions. J. Transl. Med. 9, 185 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 44 Loukopoulos P, Kanetaka K, Takamura M et al. Orthotopic transplantation models of pancreatic adenocarcinoma derived from cell lines and primary tumors and displaying varying metastatic activity. Pancreas 29(3), 193–203 (2004).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 45 Ishikawa F, Yasukawa M, Lyons B et al. Development of functional human blood and immune systems in NOD/SCID/IL2 receptor {gamma} chain(null) mice. Blood 106(5), 1565–1573 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 46 Joo SY, Chung YS, Choi B et al. Systemic human T cell developmental processes in humanized mice cotransplanted with human fetal thymus/liver tissue and hematopoietic stem cells. Transplantation 94(11), 1095–1102 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 47 Talmadge JE, Singh RK, Fidler IJ et al. Murine models to evaluate novel and conventional therapeutic strategies for cancer. Am. J. Pathol. 170(3), 793–804 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 48 Bankert RB, Balu-Iyer SV, Odunsi K et al. Humanized mouse model of ovarian cancer recapitulates patient solid tumor progression, ascites formation, and metastasis. PLoS ONE 6(9), e24420 (2011).• Reports the establishment of humanized mouse models.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 49 Shultz LD, Brehm MA, Garcia-Martinez JV et al. Humanized mice for immune system investigation: progress, promise and challenges. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12(11), 786–798 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 50 Brehm MA, Shultz LD, Luban J et al. Overcoming current limitations in humanized mouse research. J. Infect. Dis. 208(Suppl. 2), S125–S130 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 51 The Breast Cancer Genome-Guided Therapy (BEAUTY) study. Mayo Clinic Cancer Center. http://mayoresearch.mayo.edu/.
  Google Scholar
• 52 HERACLES study. Istituto di Candiolo. www.ircc.it/irccit/?q=Heracles-Trial.
  Google Scholar
• 53 Dalerba P, Dylla SJ, Park IK et al. Phenotypic characterization of human colorectal cancer stem cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104(24), 10158–10163 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 54 Fiebig HH, Schuler J, Bausch N et al. Gene signatures developed from patient tumor explants grown in nude mice to predict tumor response to 11 cytotoxic drugs. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 4(3), 197–209 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 55 Hammers HJ, Verheul HM, Salumbides B et al. Reversible epithelial to mesenchymal transition and acquired resistance to sunitinib in patients with renal cell carcinoma: evidence from a xenograft study. Mol. Cancer Ther. 9(6), 1525–1535 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 56 Jin K, Lan H, Cao F et al. Differential response to EGFR- and VEGF-targeted therapies in patient-derived tumor tissue xenograft models of colon carcinoma and related metastases. Int. J. Oncol. 41(2), 583–588 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 57 Jin K, Li G, Cui B et al. Assessment of a novel VEGF targeted agent using patient-derived tumor tissue xenograft models of colon carcinoma with lymphatic and hepatic metastases. PLoS ONE 6(12), e28384 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 58 Kabos P, Finlay-Schultz J, Li C et al. Patient-derived luminal breast cancer xenografts retain hormone receptor heterogeneity and help define unique estrogen-dependent gene signatures. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 135(2), 415–432 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 59 Keysar SB, Le PN, Anderson RT et al. Hedgehog signaling alters reliance on EGF receptor signaling and mediates anti-EGFR therapeutic resistance in head and neck cancer. Cancer Res. 73(11), 3381–3392 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 60 Kortmann U, McAlpine JN, Xue H et al. Tumor growth inhibition by olaparib in BRCA2 germline-mutated patient-derived ovarian cancer tissue xenografts. Clin. Cancer Res. 17(4), 783–791 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 61 Moestue SA, Borgan E, Huuse EM et al. Distinct choline metabolic profiles are associated with differences in gene expression for basal-like and luminal-like breast cancer xenograft models. BMC Cancer 10, 433 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 62 Nemati F, Sastre-Garau X, Laurent C et al. Establishment and characterization of a panel of human uveal melanoma xenografts derived from primary and/or metastatic tumors. Clin. Cancer Res. 16(8), 2352–2362 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 63 Oudard S, Legrier ME, Boye K et al. Activity of docetaxel with or without estramustine phosphate versus mitoxantrone in androgen dependent and independent human prostate cancer xenografts. J. Urol. 169(5), 1729–1734 (2003).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 64 Romanelli A, Clark A, Assayag F et al. Inhibiting aurora kinases reduces tumor growth and suppresses tumor recurrence after chemotherapy in patient-derived triple-negative breast cancer xenografts. Mol. Cancer Ther. 11(12), 2693–2703 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 65 Schatton T, Murphy GF, Frank NY et al. Identification of cells initiating human melanomas. Nature 451(7176), 345–349 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 66 Seguin L, Kato S, Franovic A et al. An integrin beta(3)-KRAS-RalB complex drives tumour stemness and resistance to EGFR inhibition. Nat. Cell Biol. 16(5), 457–468 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 67 Serra V, Eichhorn PJ, Garcia-Garcia C et al. RSK3/4 mediate resistance to PI3K pathway inhibitors in breast cancer. J. Clin. Invest. 123(6), 2551–2563 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 68 Tentler JJ, Nallapareddy S, Tan AC et al. Identification of predictive markers of response to the MEK1/2 inhibitor selumetinib (AZD6244) in K-ras-mutated colorectal cancer. Mol. Cancer Ther. 9(12), 3351–3362 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 69 Venkatesha VA, Parsels LA, Parsels JD et al. Sensitization of pancreatic cancer stem cells to gemcitabine by Chk1 inhibition. Neoplasia 14(6), 519–525 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 70 Von Hoff DD, Ervin T, Arena FP et al. Increased survival in pancreatic cancer with nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine. N. Engl. J. Med. 369(18), 1691–1703 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 71 Wu X, Zhang J, Zhen R et al. Trastuzumab anti-tumor efficacy in patient-derived esophageal squamous cell carcinoma xenograft (PDECX) mouse models. J. Transl. Med. 10, 180 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 72 Yuen JS, Sim MY, Siml HG et al. Inhibition of angiogenic and non-angiogenic targets by sorafenib in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) in a RCC xenograft model. Br. J. Cancer 104(6), 941–947 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 73 Zhang J, Zhang L, Su X et al. Translating the therapeutic potential of AZD4547 in FGFR1-amplified non-small cell lung cancer through the use of patient-derived tumor xenograft models. Clin. Cancer Res. 18(24), 6658–6667 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 74 DeRose YS, Wang G, Lin YC et al. Tumor grafts derived from women with breast cancer authentically reflect tumor pathology, growth, metastasis and disease outcomes. Nat. Med. 17(11), 1514–1520 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 75 Sivanand S, Pena-Llopis S, Zhao H et al. A validated tumorgraft model reveals activity of dovitinib against renal cell carcinoma. Sci. Transl. Med. 4(137), 137ra75 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 76 Kleine W. Prognostic significance of growth characteristics of xenotransplanted ovarian carcinomas into nude mice. Gynecol. Oncol. 25(1), 65–72 (1986).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 77 Rajeshkumar NV, Tan AC, De Oliveira E et al. Antitumor effects and biomarkers of activity of AZD0530, a Src inhibitor, in pancreatic cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 15(12), 4138–4146 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 78 Liem NL, Papa RA, Milross CG et al. Characterization of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia xenograft models for the preclinical evaluation of new therapies. Blood 103(10), 3905–3914 (2004).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 79 Carol H, Szymanska B, Evans K et al. The anti-CD19 antibody-drug conjugate SAR3419 prevents hematolymphoid relapse postinduction therapy in preclinical models of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clin. Cancer Res. 19(7), 1795–1805 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 80 Von Hoff DD, Ramanathan RK, Borad MJ et al. Gemcitabine plus nab-paclitaxel is an active regimen in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer: a Phase I/II trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 29(34), 4548–4554 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 81 Ong FS, Das K, Wang J et al. Personalized medicine and pharmacogenetic biomarkers: progress in molecular oncology testing. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 12(6), 593–602 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 82 de Mello RA, Madureira P, Carvalho LS et al. EGFR and KRAS mutations, and ALK fusions: current developments and personalized therapies for patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Pharmacogenomics 14(14), 1765–1777 (2013).
  CASGoogle Scholar
• 83 Flaherty KT, Puzanov I, Kim KB et al. Inhibition of mutated, activated BRAF in metastatic melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 363(9), 809–819 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 84 Garraway LA. Genomics-driven oncology: framework for an emerging paradigm. J. Clin. Oncol. 31(15), 1806–1814 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 85 Herter-Sprie GS, Kung AL, Wong KK. New cast for a new era: preclinical cancer drug development revisited. J. Clin. Invest. 123(9), 3639–3645 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 86 Lunardi A, Pandolfi PP. A co-clinical platform to accelerate cancer treatment optimization. Trends Mol. Med. 21(1), 1–5 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 87 Nardella C, Lunardi A, Patnaik A et al. The APL paradigm and the “co-clinical trial” project. Cancer Discov. 1(2), 108–116 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 88 Chen Z, Cheng K, Walton Z et al. A murine lung cancer co-clinical trial identifies genetic modifiers of therapeutic response. Nature 483(7391), 613–617 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 89 Lunardi A, Ala U, Epping MT et al. A co-clinical approach identifies mechanisms and potential therapies for androgen deprivation resistance in prostate cancer. Nat. Genet. 45(7), 747–755 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 90 Dong X, Guan J, English JC et al. Patient-derived first generation xenografts of non-small cell lung cancers: promising tools for predicting drug responses for personalized chemotherapy. Clin. Cancer Res. 16(5), 1442–1451 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 91 Garrido-Laguna I, Tan AC, Uson M et al. Integrated preclinical and clinical development of mTOR inhibitors in pancreatic cancer. Br. J. Cancer 103(5), 649–655 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 92 Jimeno A, Amador ML, Kulesza P et al. Assessment of celecoxib pharmacodynamics in pancreatic cancer. Mol. Cancer Ther. 5(12), 3240–3247 (2006).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 93 Malaney P, Nicosia SV, Dave V. One mouse, one patient paradigm: new avatars of personalized cancer therapy. Cancer Lett. 344(1), 1–12 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 94 Roper J, Hung KE. Priceless GEMMs: genetically engineered mouse models for colorectal cancer drug development. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 33(8), 449–455 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 95 Hidalgo M, Bruckheimer E, Rajeshkumar NV et al. A pilot clinical study of treatment guided by personalized tumorgrafts in patients with advanced cancer. Mol. Cancer Ther. 10(8), 1311–1316 (2011).• Successful examples of co-clinical trial.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 96 Clohessy JG, Pandolfi PP. Mouse hospital and co-clinical trial project-from bench to bedside. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2015.62 (2015) (Epub ahead of print).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 97 Julien S, Merino-Trigo A, Lacroix L et al. Characterization of a large panel of patient-derived tumor xenografts representing the clinical heterogeneity of human colorectal cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 18(19), 5314–5328 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 98 Moestue SA, Huuse EM, Lindholm EM et al. Low-molecular contrast agent dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI and diffusion-weighted (DW)-MRI in early assessment of bevacizumab treatment in breast cancer xenografts. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 38(5), 1043–1053 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 99 Streeter JE, Herrera-Loeza SG, Neel NF et al. A comparative evaluation of ultrasound molecular imaging, perfusion imaging, and volume measurements in evaluating response to therapy in patient-derived xenografts. Technol. Cancer Res. Treat. 12(4), 311–21 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 100 Moestue SA, Dam CG, Gorad SS et al. Metabolic biomarkers for response to PI3K inhibition in basal-like breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 15(1), R16 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 101 Kalscheuer H, Danzl N, Onoe T et al. A model for personalized in vivo analysis of human immune responsiveness. Sci. Transl. Med. 4(125), 125ra30 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 102 Wong NC, Bhadri VA, Maksimovic J et al. Stability of gene expression and epigenetic profiles highlights the utility of patient-derived paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia xenografts for investigating molecular mechanisms of drug resistance. BMC Genomics 15, 416 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 103 Torphy RJ, Tignanelli CJ, Kamande JW et al. Circulating tumor cells as a biomarker of response to treatment in patient-derived xenograft mouse models of pancreatic adenocarcinoma. PLoS ONE 9(2), e89474 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 104 Boj SF, Hwang CI, Baker LA et al. Organoid models of human and mouse ductal pancreatic cancer. Cell 160(1–2), 324–338 (2015).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar