Summary
Essential performance-determining factors in front crawl swimming can be analysed within a biomechanical framework, in reference to the physiological basis of performance. These factors include: active drag forces, effective propulsive forces, propelling efficiency and power output.
The success of a swimmer is determined by the ability to generate propulsive force, while reducing the resistance to forward motion. Although for a given competitive stroke a range of optimal stroking styles may be expected across a sample of swimmers, a common element of technique related to a high performance level is the use of complex sculling motions of the hands to generate especially lift forces. By changing the orientation of the hand the propulsive force acting on the hand is aimed successfully in the direction of motion. Furthermore, the swimming velocity (v) is related to drag (A), power input (Pi, the rate of energy liberation via the aerobic/ anaerobic metabolism), the gross efficiency (eg), propelling efficiency (ep), and power output (Po) according to:
Based on the research available at present it is concluded that: (a) drag in groups of elite swimmers homogeneous with respect to swimming technique is determined by anthropometric dimensions; (b) total mechanical power output (Po) is important since improvement in performance is related to increased Po. Furthermore, it shows dramatic changes with training and possibly reflects the size of the ‘swimming engine’; (c) propelling efficiency seems to be important since it is much higher in elite swimmers (61%) than in triathletes (44%); and (d) distance per stroke gives a fairly good indication of propelling efficiency and may be used to evaluate individual progress in technical ability.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexander RM, Goldspink G. Mechanics and energetics of animal locomotion, Chapman and Hall, London, 1977
Alley LE. An analysis of water resistance and propulsion in swimming the crawl stroke. Research Quarterly 23: 253–270, 1952
Andrew GM, Becklake MR, Guleria JS, et al. Heart and lung functions in swimmers and nonathletes during growth. Journal of Applied Physiology 32: 245–251, 1972
Barthels K, Adrian MJ. Three dimensional spatial hand patterns of skilled butterfly swimmers. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 154–160, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1974
Bernstein NA. The co-ordination and regulation of movement, Pergamon Press, London, 1976
Bober T, Czabanski B. Changes in breaststroke techniques under different speed conditions. In Claryss & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 188–193, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
Bone Q. Muscular and energetic aspects of fish swimming. In Wu et al. (Eds) Swimming and flying in nature, pp. 493–528, Plenum Press, New York, 1975
Bucher W. The influence of the leg kick and the arm stroke on the total speed during the crawl stroke. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 180–187, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
Charbonnier JP, Lacour JR, Riffat J, et al. Experimental study of the performance of competition swimmers. European Jouranl of Applied Physiology 34: 157–167, 1975
Clarys JP. Human morphology and hydrodynamics. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimimng III, pp. 3–43, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Costill DL, King DS, Holdren A, et al. Sprint speed vs swimming power. Swimming Technique 20: 20–22, 1983
Costill DL, Kovaleski J, Porter D, et al. Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming; predicting success in middle-distance events. International Journal of Sports Medicine 6: 266–270, 1985
Costill DL, Rayfield F, Kirwan J, et al. A computer based system for the measurement of force and power during front crawl swimming. Journal of Swimming Research 2: 16–19, 1986
Counsilman JE. Science of swimming, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1968
Counsilman JE, The role of sculling movements in the arm pull. Swimming World 10: 6–7, 1969
Counsilman JER. The application of Bernoulli’s principle to human propulsion in water. In Lewillie & Clarys (Eds) Swimming I, pp. 59–71, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, 1971
Craig AB, Boomer WL, Gibbons JF. Use of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity relationships during training for competitive swimming. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 265–274, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Craig AB, Pendergast DR. Relationships of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in competitive swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercises 11: 278–283, 1979
Craig AB, Pendergast DR. Relationships of stroke rate, distance per stroke and velocity in competitive swimming. Swimming Technique 17: 23–29, 1980
Craig AB, Skehan PL, Pawelczyk JA, et al. Velocity, stroke rate, and distance per stroke during elite swimming competition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 625–634, 1985
Cureton TK. Factors governing success in competitive swimming: A brief review of related studies. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 9–39, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
de Groot G, van Ingen Schenau GJ. Fundamental mechanics appliled to swimming: Technique and propelling efficiency. in Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 17–30, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Illinois 1988
East DJ. Stroke frequency, length and performance. Swimming Technique 8: 68–73, 1971
Faulkner JA. Physiology of swimming. Research Quarterly 37: 41–54, 1966
Faulkner JA. Physiology of swimming and diving. In Falls (Ed.) Exercise physiology, pp. 415–446, Academic Press, new York, 1968
Gergley TJ, McArdle WD, DeJesus P, et al. Specificity of arm training on aerobic power during swimming and running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 349–354, 1984
Grimstone SK, Hay JG. Relationships among anthropometric and stroking characteristics of college swimmers. Medicine and Scinece in Sports and Exercise 18: 60–68, 1986
Hay JG. The biomechanics of sports techniques, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1973
Hay JG. The status of research on the biomechanics of swimming. In Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 3–14, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Illinois, 1988
Hay JO, Guimaraes ACS, Grimston SK. A quantitative look at swimming biomechanics. Swimming Technique 20: 11–17, 1983
Hollander AP, de Groot G, van Ingen Schenau GJ, et al. Contribution of the legs in front crawl swimming. in Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming V, pp. 39–43, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., Champaign, Illinois, 1988
Hollander AP, de Groot G, van Ingen Schenau GJ, et al. Measurement of active drag forces during swimming. Journal of Sports Sciences 4: 21–30, 1986
Hollander AP, Toussaint HM, de Groot G, et al. Active drag and swimming performance. New Zealand Journal of Sports Medicine 13: 110–113, 1985
Holmér I. Oxygen uptake during swimming in man. Journal of Applied Physiology 33: 502–509, 1972
Holmér I. Physiology of swimimng man. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica (Suppl.): 407c, 1974
Holmér I. Efficiency of breaststroke and freestyle swimming. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 130–136, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
Holmér I. Analysis of acceleration as a measure of swimming proficiency. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 118–125, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Huijing PA, Hollander AP, de Groot G. Efficiency and specificity of training in swimming: an editorial. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 1–6, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill, 1983
Huijing PA, Toussaint HM, Clarys JP, et al. Active drag related to body dimensions. In Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 31–37, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Ill., 1988
Kunski H, Jegier A, Maslankiewics A, et al. The relationship of biological factors to swimming performance in top Polish junior swimmers aged 12 to 14 years. In Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 109–113, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Ill., 1988
Larsen OW, Yancher RP, Bear CLH. Boat design and swimming performance. Swimming Technique 18: 38–44, 1981
Letzelter H, Freitag W. Stroke length and stroke frequency variations in men’s and women’s 100-m freestyle swimming. in Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 315–322, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill., 1983
Lewis ER, Lorch D, Swim fin design utilizing principles of marine animal locomotion. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 289–297, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Lighthill MJ. Hydromechanics of aquatic animal propulsion. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 1: 413–445, 1969
Maglischo EW, Swimming faster, Mayfield Publishing Cy, Palo Alto, 1982
Marconnet P, Spinel W, Gastaud M, et al. Evaluation of some physiological parameters in swimming school students during a two year period. In Eriksson & Furberg (Eds) Swimming medicine IV, pp. 161–169, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1978
Martin RB, Yeater RA, White MK. A simple analytical model for the crawl stroke. Journal of Biomechanics 14: 539–548, 1981
McMurray RG. Comparative efficiencies of conventional and super-swimfin designs. Human Factors 19: 495–501, 1977
Miller DI. Biomechanics of swimming. In Wilmore & Keogh (Eds) Exercise and sport sciences reviews, pp. 219–248, Academic Press, New York, 1975
Miyashita M. Method of calculating mechanical power in swimming the breast sroke. Research Quarterly 45: 128–137, 1974
Miyashita M. Arm action in the crawl stroke. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 167–173, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
Neufer PD, Costill DL, Fielding RA, et al. Effect of reduced training on muscular strength and endurance in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 486–490, 1987
Nomura T. The influence of training and age on V̇2max during swimming in Japanese elite age group and Olympic swimmers. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 251–257, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill, 1983
Olbrecht J, Clarys JP. EMG of specific dry land training for the frontcrawl. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 136–141, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Ill, 1983
Pai YC, Hay JG, Wilson BD. Stroking techniques of elite swimmers. Journal of Sport Sciences 2: 225–239, 1984
Péronnet F, Thibault G. Mathematical anlaysis of running performance and world running records. Journal of Applied Physiology 67: 453–465, 1989
Rackham GW. An analysis of arm propulsion in swimming. In Clarys & Lewillie (Eds) Swimming II, pp. 174–179, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1975
Rayner JMV. Vorticity and propulsion mechanics in swimming and flying vertebrates. Sonderforschungsbereich 230, Heft 4: Natürliche Konstruktionen Leichtbau in Architektur und Natur, Konstruktionsprinzipien lebender und ausgestorbener Reptilien (Principles of construction in fossil and recent reptiles), Universität Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1985
Reischle K. A kinematic investigation of movement patterns in swimming with photo-optical methods. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 127–136, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Saito M. The effect of training on the relationships among velocity, stroke rate and distance per stroke in untrained subjects swimming the breaststroke. Research Quarterly 53: 323–329, 1982
Schleihauf RE. A biomechanical analysis of freestyle. Swimming Technique 11: 89–96, 1974
Schleihauf RE. A hydrodynamic analysis of swimming propulsion. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 70–109, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Schleihauf RE. Specificity of strength training in swimming: A biomechanical viewpoint. in Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 184–191, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Ill, 1983
Schleihauf RE. Swimming skill: a review of basic theory. Journal of Swimming Research 2: 11–20, 1986
Schleihauf RE, Gray L, DeRose J. Three-dimensional analysis of swimming propulsion in the sprint front crawlstroke. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 173–184, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill., 1983
Schleihauf RE, Higgins JR, Hinrichs R, et al. Propulsive techniques: front crawl stroke, butterfly, backstroke, and breast-stroke. In Ungerecths et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 53–59, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Ill, 1988
Schmidt RA. Motor control and learning, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Ill, 1988
Sharp RL, Troup JP, Costill DL. Relationship between power and sprint freestyle swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 14: 53–56, 1982
Svec O. Biofeedback for pulling efficiency. Swimming Technique 19: 38–46, 1982
Swaine I, Reilly T. The freely-chosen swimming stroke rate in a maximal swim and on a biokinetic swim bench. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 15: 370–375, 1983
Toussaint HM. Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and triathlon swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercises 22: 409–415, 1990
Toussaint HM. Performance determining factors of front crawl swimming. In MacLaren et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, E&FN Spon, London, in press, 1991
Toussaint HM, Beelen A, Rodenburg A, et al. Propelling efficiency of front crawl swimming. Journal of Applied Physiology 65: 2506–2512, 1988a
Toussaint HM, Bruinink L, Coster R, et al. Effect of a triathlon wet suit on drag during swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercises 21: 325–328, 1989
Toussaint HM, de Groot G, Savelberg HHCM, et al. Active drag related to velocity in male and female swimmers. Journal of Biomechanics 21: 435–438, 1988b
Toussaint HM, Helm FCT van der, Elzerman JR, et al. A power balance applied to swimming. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 165–172, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill., 1983
Toussaint HM, Janssen T, Kluft M. Effect of propelling surfaces size on the mechanics and energetics of front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 24: 205–211, 1991
Toussaint HM, Knops W, de Groot G, et al. The mechanical efficiency of front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercises 22: 402–408, 1990a
Toussaint HM, de Looze M, van Rossem B, et al. The effect of growth on drag in young swimmers. Journal of Sport Biomechanics 6: 18–28, 1990b
Toussaint HM, Vervoorn K. Effects of specific high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine 11: 228–233, 1990
Ungerechts BE. Optimizing propulsion in swimming by rotation of the hands. In Terauds & Bedingfield (Eds) Swimming III, pp. 55–61, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1979
Ungerechts BE. On the relevance of rotating water flow for the propulsion in swimming. In Jonsson (Ed.) Biomechanics X-B, pp. 713–716, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill, 1987
Ungerechts BE. The relation of peak body acceleration to phases of movements in swimming. In Ungerechts et al. (Eds) Swimming science V, pp. 61–66, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Ill., 1988
Vaart AJM van de, Savelberg HHCM, de Groot G, et al. An estimation of active drag in front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics 20: 543–546, 1987
van Ingen Schenau GJ, Cavanagh PR. Power equations in endurance sports. Journal of Biomechanics 23: 865–881, 1990
van Ingen Schenau GJ, de Koning JJ, de Groot G. A simulation of speed skating performances based on a power equation. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 718–728, 1990
Watkins J, Gordon AT. The effect of leg action on performance in the sprint front crawl stroke. In Hollander et al. (Eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming, pp. 310–314, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Ill., 1983
Webb PW. The swimming energetics of trout I: thrust and power output at cruising speeds. Journal of Experimental Biology 55: 489–520, 1971a
Webb PW. The swimming energetics of trout II: oxygen consumption and swimming efficiency. Journal of Experimental Biology 55: 521–540, 1971b
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Toussaint, H.M., Beek, P.J. Biomechanics of Competitive Front Crawl Swimming. Sports Medicine 13, 8–24 (1992). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199213010-00002
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199213010-00002