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The Pharmacogenetics of Immunosuppression for Organ Transplantation

A Route to Individualization of Drug Administration

  • Practical Pharmacogenomics
  • Published:
American Journal of Pharmacogenomics

Abstract

Transplantation has transformed the treatment of patients with organ failure in a number of clinical settings, and immunosuppressive drug therapy is fundamental to its success. However, all the drugs in current use have a narrow therapeutic index. Under-dosing can lead to rejection, while over-dosing increases the risks of infection, malignant disease, and serious drug-specific adverse effects, including diabetes mellitus, nephrotoxicity, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia.

Heterogeneity in the pharmacokinetics of these drugs makes initial dose determination difficult, as there is a poor correlation between dose and blood concentration. This results in difficulties in achieving target blood concentrations early after transplantation, which are important for reducing the rate of immunological rejection. This problem is compounded by the observation that neither drug dose nor drug blood concentration accurately predict clinical efficacy or toxicity.

The main determinant of heterogeneity in dose requirements is intestinal absorption of the active drug. The oxidative enzymes, cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 and CYP3A5, and the drug efflux pump P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in enterocytes regulate this process. Most substrates for the P-gp pump are also substrates for the CYP3A enzymes. An efficient barrier to xenobiotic absorption is formed by the CYP enzymes and P-gp, and by the two systems working synergistically. Genetic polymorphisms have been reported for the genes associated with the expression of the CYP3A enzymes and P-gp. Genotyping patients for CYP3A genes has the potential to aid the establishment of optimal dosage regimens for transplant patients.

Genetic polymorphism of the multiple drug resistance gene-1 (MDR1, also known as ABCB1) [3435C/T] and the CYP3A5 genes (CYP3A5*1, CYP3AP1*1) have the greatest potential to influence the pharmacokinetics of immunosuppressants. Homozygosity of the T allele of the MDR1 3435C/T polymorphism has been associated with reduced enterocyte expression of P-gp resulting in increased drug absorption. The presence of the CYP3A5*1 allele is necessary for the production of a fully catalytic CYP3A5 protein, and also influences the ratio of CYP3A4 : CYP3A5 as well as the overall CYP3A catalytic activity. The CYP3A4 : CYP3A5 ratio may, in turn, influence the pattern of drug metabolites formed. Heterogeneity in the production of active and inactive metabolites has implications for both the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these drugs.

Gene frequencies and drug dose requirements differ between ethnic groups. Ethnic differences in dose requirements for immunosuppressants have been discussed widely. However, ethnicity is a rather crude marker for genotype. Pharmacogenetic typing offers the possibility of significant improvement in the individualization of immunosuppressive drug prescribing with reduced rates of rejection and toxicity.

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Notes

  1. 11 The use of tradenames is for product identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement. and a possible solution to the problem of planning initial drug administration schedules.

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Acknowledgements

No external funding was used to assist in the preparation of this manuscript. Iain MacPhee has received research funding and travel bursaries from several of the pharmaceutical companies that manufacture immunosuppressive drugs (Fujisawa, Novartis, Roche, and Wyeth).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Analytical Unit, St George’s Hospital Medical School, London, UK

    Salim Fredericks & David W. Holt

  2. Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Renal Medicine, St George’s Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK

    Iain A. M. MacPhee

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  1. Salim Fredericks
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  2. David W. Holt
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Correspondence to Iain A. M. MacPhee.

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Fredericks, S., Holt, D.W. & MacPhee, I.A.M. The Pharmacogenetics of Immunosuppression for Organ Transplantation. Am J Pharmacogenomics 3, 291–301 (2003). https://doi.org/10.2165/00129785-200303050-00001

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