Summary
Four topics are addressed: fluid/fuel replacement during the marathon, marathoning and susceptibility to infection; psychological aspects of elite marathoners and the gender gap in marathon performance. Although these topics are diverse, they all relate to practical questions raised by coaches and athletes. Evidence from laboratory and field studies indicates that it is advisable for marathoners to consume 800 to 1000 L/h of sports drink providing 45 to 60 g/h of carbohydrate. It is strongly suggested to practise fluid consumption during training sessions as it is probable that tolerance to drinking during running is a trainable adaptation. Epidemiological and clinical research support the concept that marathon training and racing increase the runner’s risk of upper respiratory tract infections because of negative changes in immune function. Susceptibility to infection may be reduced by proper nutrition, adequate sleep, appropriate recovery between vigorous workouts and minimal exposure to sick people during periods of heavy training and major races. Although psychological research in this area is still limited, evidence suggests that elite marathoners rely primarily on associative strategies during competition while judiciously disso-ciating in order to cope with pain. It is recommended that coaches and athletes interested in employing psychological interventions seek assistance from professionals well trained in the fields of both psychology and exercise science. Will women soon outrun men? Over the past 2 decades societal views and training practices of women distance runners have changed greatly, yet certain performance-related biological differences between men and women are unlikely to change.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand on the prevention of thermal injuries during distance running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 529–533, 1987
Armstrong LE, Pandolf KB. Physical training, cardiorespiratory physical fitness and exercise-heat stress. In Pandolf et al. (Eds) Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes, pp. 199–226, Benchmark Press, Indianapolis, 1988
Berks LS, Nieman DC, Youngberg WS, Arabatzis K, Simpson-Westerberg M, et al. The effect of long endurance running on natural killer cells in marathoners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 207–212, 1990
Bowerman WJ, Harris WE. Jogging, Grosset & Dunlap, New York, 1967
Chandra RK. 1990 McCollum award lecture. Nutrition and immunity: lessons from the past and new insights into the future. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53: 1087–1101, 1991
Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. In Holloszy (Ed.) Exercise and sports sciences reviews, Vol. 19, pp. 1–40, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1991
Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Smith AP. Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine 325: 606–612, 1991
Cooper KH. Aerobics, Bantam Books, New York, 1968
Costill DL. Inside running: basics of sports physiology, Benchmark Press, Indianapolis, 1986
Costill DL, Kammer WF, Fisher A. Fluid ingestion during distance running. Archives of Environmental Health 21: 520–525, 1970
Coyle EF, Hamilton M. Fluid replacement during exercise: effects on physiological homeostasis and performance. In Gisolfi & Lamb (Eds) Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine, Vol. 3, pp. 281–308, Benchmark Press, Carmel, 1990
Davidson RJL, Robertson JD, Galea G, Maughan RJ. Hematological changes associated with marathon running. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8: 19–25, 1987
Dickson DN, Wilkinson RL, Noakes TD. Effects of ultra-marathon training and racing on hematologic parameters and serum ferritin levels in well-trained athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine 3: 111–117, 1982
Dishman RK, Landy FL. Psychological factors and prolonged exercise. In Lamb & Murray (Eds) Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine, Vol. I: prolonged exercise, pp. 281–356, Benchmark Press, Indianapolis, 1988
Dufaux B, Order U. Complement activation after prolonged exercise. Clinica Chimica Acta 179: 45–49, 1989a
Dufaux B, Order U. Plasma elastase-α1-antitrypsin, neopterin, tumor necrosis factor, and soluble interleukin-2 receptor after prolonged exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 434–438, 1989b
Durtschi SK, Weiss, MR. Psychological characteristics of elite and nonelite marathon runners. In Landers (Ed.) Sport and elite performers, pp. 73–80, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, 1986
Eskola J, Ruuskanen O, Soppi E, Viljanen MK, Jarvinen M, et al. Effect of sport stress on lymphocyte transformation and antibody formation. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 32: 339–345, 1978
Evans WJ, Cannon JG. The metabolic effects of exercise-induced muscle damage. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 19: 99–125, 1991
Fehr HG, Lotzerich H, Michna H. Human macrophage function and physical exercise: phagocytic and histochemical studies. European Journal of Applied Physiology 58: 613–617, 1989
Ferry A, Weill BL, Rieu M. Immunomodulations induced in rats by exercise on a treadmill. Journal of Applied Physiology 69: 1912–1915, 1990
Fitzgerald L. Overtraining increases the susceptibility to infection. International Journal of Sports Medicine 12 (Suppl. 1): S5–S8, 1991
Gisolfi CV, Duchman SM. Guidelines for optimal replacement beverages for different athletic events. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24: 679–687, 1992
Gmunder FK, Lorenzi G, Bechler B, Joller P, Muller J, et al. Effect of long-term physical exercise on lymphocyte reactivity: similarity to spaceflight reactions. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 59: 146–151, 1988
Huit JS. The female American runner: a quest for visibility. In Drinkwater (Ed.) Female endurance athletes, pp. 27–31, Human Kinetics, Champaign, 1986
Israel S, Buhl B, Krause M, Neumann G. Die Konzentration der Immunglobuline A, G und M im Serum bei trainierten und untrainierten sowie nach verschiedenen sportlichen Ausdauerleistungen. Medizin und Sport 22: 225–231, 1982
Jokl E. The immunological status of athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 14: 165–192, 1974
Kappel M, Tvede N, Galbo H, Haahr PM, Kjaer M, et al. Evidence that the effect of physical exercise on NK cell activity is mediated by epinephrine. Journal of Applied Physiology 70: 2530–2534, 1991
Khansari DN, Murgo AJ, Faith RE. Effects of stress on the immune system. Immunology Today 11: 170–175, 1990
Kuscsik N. The history of women’s participation in the marathon. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 33–46, 1977
Linde F. Running and upper respiratory tract infections. Scandinavian Journal of Sport Science 9: 21–23, 1987
Mahan MP, Young MR. Immune parameters of untrained or exercise-trained rats after exhaustive exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 66: 282–287, 1989
Martin DE, Gynn RW. The marathon footrace: performers and performances, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 1979
Matthews P (Ed.) Athletics: the international track and field annual 1991, pp. 386, 476, Burlington Publishing Ltd, Berkshire, 1991
Maughan RJ. Fluid and electrolyte loss and replacement. Journal of Sports Sciences 9: 117–142, 1991
Michna H. The human macrophage system: activity and functional morphology. Bibliotheca Anatomica 31: 1–84, 1988
Millard-Stafford M. Fluid replacement during exercise in the heat. Sports Medicine 13: 223–233, 1992
Millard-Stafford M, Sparling PB, Rosskopf LB, DiCarlo LJ. Carbohydrate-electrolyte replacement improves distance running performance in the heat. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24: 934–940, 1992
Milvy P (Ed.) The marathon: physiological, medical, epidemiological and psychological studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 1–1090, 1977
Mitchell JB, Voss KW. The influence of volume on gastric emptying and fluid balance during prolonged exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23: 314–319, 1991
Morgan WP. Selected psychological factors limiting performance: a mental health model. In Clarck & Eckert (Eds) Limits of human performance, pp. 70–80, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, 1985
Morgan WP, Brown DR, Raglin JS, O’Connor PJ, Ellickson KA. Psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness. British Journal of Sports Medicine 21: 107–114, 1987a
Morgan WP, Costill DL. Psychological characteristics of the marathon runner. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 12: 42–46, 1972
Morgan WP, Horstman DH, Cymerman A, Stokes J. Facilitation of physical performance by means of a cognitive strategy. Cognitive Therapy and Research 7: 251–264, 1983
Morgan WP, O’Connor PJ, Ellickson KA, Bradley PB. Personality structure, mood states, and performance in elite male distance runners. International Journal of Sport Psychology 19: 247–263, 1988
Morgan WP, O’Connor PJ, Sparling PB, Pate RR. Psychological characterization of the elite female distance runner. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl. 2): 124–131, 1987b
Morgan WP, Pollock ML. Psychological characteristics of the elite distance runner. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 383–403, 1977
Morton RH. The supreme runner: what evidence now? Australian Journal of Sports Sciences 3: 7–10, 1983
Nieman DC, Berk L S, Simpson-Westerberg M, Arabatzis K, Youngberg W. Effects of long endurance running on immune system parameters and lymphocyte function in experienced marathoners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 317–323, 1989a
Nieman DC, George DM. Personality traits that correlate with success in distance running. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 27: 345–356, 1987
Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW. Infectious episodes in runners before and after a roadrace. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 29: 289–296, 1989b
Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW, Arabatzis K. Infectious episodes in runners before and after the Los Angeles Marathon. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 30: 316–28, 1990
Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL. Effects of endurance exercise on immune response. In Shephard & Åstrand (Eds) Endurance in sports, pp 487–504, Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd, Oxford, 1992a
Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL. The effects of acute and chronic exercise on immunoglobulins. Sports Medicine 11: 183–201, 1991
Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL. Exercise and infection. In Eisinger & Watson (Eds) Exercise and disease, pp 122–148, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, 1992b
Nieman DC, Tan SA, Lee JW, Berk LS. Complement and immunoglobulin levels in athletes and sedentary controls. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 124–128, 1989c
Noakes TD. The lore of running, 3rd ed., Leisure Press, Champaign, 1991
Noakes TD, Adams BA, Myburgh K, Greef TC, Lotz T, et al. The danger of an inadequate water intake during prolonged exercise: a novel concept revisited. European Journal of Applied Physiology 57: 210–222, 1988
Noakes TD, Myburgh KH, DuPlessis J, Lang L, Lambert M, et al. Metabolic rate, not percent dehydration, predicts rectal temperature in marathon runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23: 443–449, 1991
O’Connor PJ. Psychological aspects of endurance performance. In Shephard & Åstrand (Eds) The encyclopedia of sports medicine: the Olympic book of endurance of sports, pp. 141–147, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1992
Owen MD, Kregel KC, Wall PT, Gisolfi CV. Effects of ingesting carbohydrate beverages during exercise in the heat. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 51–58, 1986
Pedersen BK, Tvede N, Hansen FR, Andersen V, Bendix T, et al. Modulation of natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood by physical exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 27: 673–678, 1988
Pedersen BK, Tvede N, Klarlund K, Christensen LD, Hansen FR, et al. Indomethacin in vitro and in vivo abolishes postexercise suppression of natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood. International Journal of Sports Medicine 11: 127–131, 1990
Peters EM, Bateman Ed. Respiratory tract infections: an epidemiological survey. South African Medical Journal 64: 582–584, 1983
Pollock ML. Characteristics of elite class distance runners — overview. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 278–282, 1977
Raglin JS. Anxiety and athletic performance. In Hollozey (Ed.) Exercise and sport sciences reviews, Vol. 20, pp. 243–274, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1992
Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, TenHoor F, Saris WHM. Effects of dehydration on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal distress while running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 790–795, 1990
Ryder HW, Carr HJ, Herget P. Future performance in footracing. Scientific American 234: 108–119, 1976
Sawka MN. Body fluid responses and hypohydration during exercise-heat stress. In Pandolf et al. (Eds) Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes, pp. 199–226, Benchmark Press, Indianapolis, 1988
Schomer H. Mental strategies and the perception of effort of marathon runners. International Journal of Sport Psychology 17: 41–59, 1986
Silva JM, Appelbaum MI. Association-dissociation patterns of the United States Olympic marathon trial contestants. Cognitive Therapy and Research 13: 185–192, 1989
Silva JM, Hardy CJ. Discriminating contestants at the United States Olympic marathon trials as a function of precompetitive affect. International Journal of Sport Psychology 17: 100–109, 1986
Simpson JR, Hoffman-Goetz L. Exercise stress and murine natural killer cell function. Proceedings of the Society for Expermental Biology and Medicine 195: 129–135, 1990
Smith JA, Telford RD, Mason IB, Weidemann MJ. Exercise, training and neutrophil microbicidal activity. International Journal of Sports Medicine 11: 179–187, 1990a
Smith JK, Chi DS, Krish G, Reynolds S, Cambron G. Effect of exercise on complement activity. Annals of Allergy 65: 304–310, 1990b
Smith LL. Acute inflammation: the underlying mechanism in delayed onset muscle soreness? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23: 542–551, 1991
Sparling PB. A meta-analysis of studies comparing maximal oxygen uptake in men and women. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 51: 542–552, 1980
Sparling PB, Cureton KJ. Biological determinants of the sex difference in 12-min run performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 15: 218–223, 1983
Sparling PB, Wilson GE, Pate RR. Project overview and description of performance, training, and physical characteristics in elite women distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl. 2): 73–76, 1987
Stauber WT, Fritz VK, Vogelbach DW, Dahlmann B. Characterization of muscles injured by forced lengthening: I. Cellular infiltrates. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20: 345–353, 1988
Sutton JR. Clinical implications of fluid imbalance. In Gisolfi & Lamb (Eds) Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine, Vol. 3, pp. 425–456, Benchmark Press, Carmel, 1990
Wells CL, Stern JR, Hecht LH. Hematological changes following a marathon race in male and female runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology 48: 41–49, 1982
Whipp BJ, Ward SA. Will women soon outrun men? Nature 355: 25, 1992
Williams C, Nute MG, Broadbank L, Vinall S. Influence of fluid intake on endurance running performance: a comparison between water, glucose, and fructose solutions. European Journal of Applied Physiology 60: 112–119, 1990
Wyndham CH, Strydom NB. The danger of an inadequate water intake during marathon running. South African Medical Journal 43: 893–896, 1969
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sparling, P.B., Nieman, D.C. & O’Connor, P.J. Selected Scientific Aspects of Marathon Racing. Sports Medicine 15, 116–132 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199315020-00005
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199315020-00005