Summary
Infections involving bone continue to be a common problem. In children this is usually an acute haematogenous osteomyelitis. Early diagnosis with culture of an aspiration specimen is of paramount importance. Treatment with antibacterial agents is often successful unless pus is obtained in aspiration. In cases with an established abscess, surgical drainage is often needed in addition to antibiotic treatment.
Staphylococcus aureus is the most common causative organism, although other microbes are often found in special circumstances such as in neonates, patients with sickle cell disease and those with nail puncture wounds.
In adults, a pyogenic osteomyelitis is often due to direct trauma and generally is chronic in nature. Surgical debridement is the mainstay of treatment in these cases. Antibiotic treatment is often helpful but not curative by itself.
Fungal and mycobacterial osteomyelitis is especially common in immunocompromised hosts. Amphotericin B remains the preferred treatment for fungal infections. Long term antituberculous multiple drug therapy is often sufficient to treat mycobacterial osteomyelitis.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Almekinders LC, Greene WB. Vertebral Candida infections. Case report and review of the literature. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 267: 174–178, 1991
Almekinders LC, Lachiewicz PF. Nocardia osteomyelitis: case report and review of the literature. Orthopaedics 12: 1583–1585, 1989
Bell SM. Further observations on the value of oral penicillins in chronic staphylococcal osteomyelitis. Medical Journal of Australia 2: 591, 1976
Black J, Hunt TL, Godley PJ, Matthew E. Oral antimicrobial therapy for adults with osteomyelitis or septic arthritis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 155: 968, 1987
Blockley NJ, Watson JT. Acute osteomyelitis in children. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 52B: 77, 1970
Borman TR, Johnson RA, Sherman FC. Gallium scintigraphy for diagnosis of septic arthritis and osteomyelitis in children. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 6: 317, 1986
Brennan PJ, Degirolamo MP. Musculoskeletal infections in immunocompromised hosts. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America 22: 389, 1991
Bryson VJ, Connor JD, Leclere M, Giammona ST. High dose oral dicloxacillin treatment of acute staphylococcal osteomyelitis in childhood. Journal of Pediatrics 94: 673, 1979
Burch FH, Fine G, Quinn EL, Eisses JF. Cryptococcus neoformans as a cause of lytic bone lesions. Journal of the American Medical Association 231: 1057–1059, 1975
Canale ST, Harkness RM, Thomas PA, Massie JD. Does aspiration of bones and joints affect results of later bone scanning. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 5: 23, 1985
Chapman SW. Blastomyces dermatitides. In Mandell et al. (Eds) Principles and practices of infectious diseases, 2nd ed., pp. 1477–1485, Wiley, New York, 1985
Christensen GD, Simpson WA. Gram positive bacteria: pathogenesis of staphylococcal musculoskeletal infections. In Esterhai et al. (Eds) Musculoskeletal infection, pp. 57–78, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Park Ridge II, 1992
Cierny III G. Classification and treatment of adult osteomyelitis. In Evarts (Ed.) Surgery of the musculoskeletal system, 2nd ed., Vol. 5, pp. 4337–4380, Churchill Livingstone, London, 1990
Clark RB, Spector H, Friedman OM, Oldrati KJ, Young CL, et al. Osteomyelitis and synovitis produced by Mycobacteriumarinum in a fisherman. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 28: 2570–2572, 1990
Clawson KK, Davis FT, Hansen ST. Treatment of chronic osteomylelitis with emphasis on closed suction-irrigration technique. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 96: 88, 1973
Cole WG, Dalziel RE, Leitl S. Treatment of acute osteomyelitis in childhood. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 64B: 218, 1982
Dankett J, Hogt AH, Feijen T. Biomedical polymers: bacterial adhesion, colonization and infection. CRC Critical Review of Biocompatibility 2: 219, 1986
Dougherty SLT, Simmens RL. Infections in bionic man: the pathology of infections in prosthetic devices. Current Problems in Surgery 19: 265, 1982
Edwards JE. Severe candidal infections: clinical perspective, immune defense mechanisms and current concepts of therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine 89: 91–106, 1978
Feigin RD, Pickering LK, Anderson D, Keeney RD, Shackleford PG. Clindamycin treatment of osteomyelitis an septic arthritis in children. Pediatrics 55: 213, 1975
Fisher MC, Goldsmith JF, Gilligan PH. Sneakers as a source of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in children with osteomyelitis following puncture wounds. Journal of Pediatrics 106: 607, 1985
Fitzgerald RH, Conan JD. Puncture wounds of the foot. Orthopaedic Clinics of North American: 965, 1975
Fox L, Sprant K. Neonatal osteomyelitis. Pediatrics 62: 535, 1978
Gallin, JI. (Moderator). Clinical manifestations: recent advances in chronic granulomatous disease. Annals of Internal Medicine 99: 657, 1983
Gentry LO, Rodriguez GG. Oral ciprofloxacin compared with parenteral antibiotics in the treatment of osteomyelitis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 40, 1990
Gentry LO, Rodriguez G. Ofloxacin versus parenteral therapy for chronic osteomyelitis. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy 35: 538, 1991
Givner LB, Luddy RE, Schwartz AD. Etiology of osteomyelitis in patients with major sickle hemoglobinopathies. Journal of Pediatrics 99: 411, 1981
Grange JM. Bacteriology of mycobacteria. In Coombs & Fitzgerald (Eds) Infection in the orthopaedic patient, pp. 297–302, Butterworths, London, 1989
Green N, Bruno J. Pseudomonas infections of the foot after puncture wounds. Southern Medical Journal 73: 146, 1980
Green NE. The use of bone scans for the detection of osteomyelitis. Instructional Course Lectures 32: 40, 1983
Green NE, Edwards K. Bone and joint infections in children. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America 18: 555, 1987
Gristina AG, Naylor PT, Myrvik GN. Mechanisms of musculoskeletal sepsis. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America 22: 363, 1991
Grossman M. Aspergillosis of bone. British Journal Radiology 18: 57–59, 1975
Gustilo RB, Mendoza RM, Williams DN. Problems in the management of Type lll open fractures. A new classification of Type lll open fractures. Journal of Trauma 24: 742, 1984
Gustilo RB. Management of infected fratures. In Evarts (Ed.) Surgery of the musculoskeletal system, 2nd ed., Vol. 5. pp. 4429–4453, Churchill Livingstone, London, 1990a
Gustilo RB. Management of infected non-union. In Evarts (Ed.) Surgery of the musculoskeletal system, 2nd ed., Vol. 5, pp. 4455–4474, Churchill Livingstone, London, 1990b
Harris RL, Fainstein V, Elting L, Hopfer RL, Bodey GP. Bacteraemia caused by Aeromonas species in hospitalized cancer patients. Review of Infectious Diseases 7: 314, 1985
Heydemann JS, Morrissy RT. Bone and joint sepsis in childhood: problems in diagnosis. Orthopaedic Transactions 10: 504, 1986
Hobo T. Zur Pathogenesis for akuten hematogenous osteomyelitis. Medicinals universities imperialis in Kioto. Acta Scholae 4: 1, 1921
Ingram C, Eran LJ, Goldenberg RT, Morrison AJ, Poretz DM, et al. Antibiotic treatment of osteomyelitis in outpatients. Medical Clinics of North America 72: 723, 1988
Jackson MA, Nelson JD. Etiology and medical management of acute suppurative bone and joint infections in paediatric patients. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 2: 313, 1982
Jacobs RF, Adelman L, Sack CM, Wilson CB. Management of pseudomonas osteochondritis complicating puncture wounds of the foot. Pediatrics 69: 432, 1982
Jacobs RF, McCarthy RE, Elser JM. Pseudomonas osteochondritis complicating puncture wounds of the foot in children: a 10-year evaluation. Journal of Infectious Disease 160: 657, 1989
Jindari A, Aber V, Edwards EA, Mutchison DA. The early bactericidal activity of drugs in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 121: 939–944, 1980
Johnston CLW, Webster ADB, Taylor-Robinson D, Rapaport G, Hughes GRV. Primary late-onset hypogammaglobulinemia associated with inflammatory polyarthritis and septic arthritis due to mycoplasma pneumonia. Annals of Rheumatic Disease 42: 108, 1983
Keeley K, Buchanan GR. Acute infarction of long bones in children with sickle cell anemia. Journal of Pediatrics 101: 170, 1982
Kolyvas E, Ahronheim G, Marks MI, Gledhill R, Owen H, et al. Oral antibiotic therapy of skeletal infections in children. Pediatrics 65: 867, 1980
Kuo KN, Lloyd-Roberts GC, Orme IM, Soothill JF. Immunodeficiency and infantile bone and joint infection. Archives of Diseases of Children 50: 51, 1975
Lopez JF, Quesed J, Saied A. Bacteraemia and osteomyelitis due to Aeromonas hydrophilia: a complication during the treatment of acute leukemia. American Journal Clinical Pathology 50: 587, 1968
Lunke RT, Fitzgerald RH, Washington JA. Pharmacokinetics of cefamandole in osseous tissue. Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy 19: 851, 1981
Mader JT, Cantell JS, Calhoun J. Oral ciprofloxacin compared with standard parenteral antibiotic therapy for chronic osteomyelitis in adults. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 72–104, 1990
MacGregor RR. Host defenses, the compromised host and osteomyelitis. In Esterhai et al. (Eds) Muscoloskeletal infection, pp. 291–297, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Park Ridge, II, 1992
Mallouh A, Talab Y. Bone and joint infection in patients with sickle cell disease. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 5: 158, 1985
Masters DL, Lentino JR. Cervical osteomyelitis related to nocardia asteroides. Journal of Infectious Diseases 149: 824, 1984
McCoy JR, Morrissy RT, Siebert J. Clinical experience with the technetium scan in children. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 154: 175, 1981
Medical Research Council’s Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. Short course chemotherapy in the treatment of spinal tuberculosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 68B: 158, 1986
Menan J, Bowen TM, Neri C. Long term outpatient intravenous antibiotic therapy for orthopaedic patients. Orthopaedics 7: 1280, 1984
Mitchison DA. The action of anti-tuberculosis drugs in short course chemotherapy. Tubercle 66: 219–255, 1985
Morrey BF, Peterson HA. Hematogenous pyogenic osteomyelitis in children. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America 6: 935, 1975
Morrissy RT. Bone and joint sepsis in children. Instructional Course Lectures 31: 49, 1982
Morrissy RT, Haynes DW. Acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 9: 447, 1989
Morrissy RT. Bone and joint infections. In Morrissy (Ed.) Lovell and Winter’s paediatric orthopaedics, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 539–561, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1990
Nelson JD. The bacterial etiology and antibiotic management of septic arthritis in infants and children. Pediatrics 50: 437, 1972
Ninth Report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. A 10 year assessment of controlled clinical trials of inpatient and outpatient treatment and of plaster-of-paris treatment for tuberculosis of the spine in children on standard chemotherapy: studies in Masan and Pausan, Korea. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 67B: 103–110, 1985.
O’Brien T, McManns F, MacAuley PH, Ennis JT. Acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 64B: 450, 1982
Patzakis MJ, Harrey JP, Ivler D. The role of antibiotics in the management of open fractures. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 56: 532, 1974
Peltola H, Vahvanen V. A comparative study of osteomyelitis and purulent arthritis with special reference to aetiology and recovery. Infection 12: 75, 1984
Peterson PK, Tsukayama DT. Bone and joint infections in immunocompromited patients. In Gustilo (Ed.) Orthopaedic infection: diagnosis and treatment, pp. 81–86, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1989
Prober CG, Yeager AS. Use of serum bactericidal titer to assess the adequacy of oral antibiotic therapy in the treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Paediatric Pharmacology and Therapeutics 95: 131, 1979
Rao S, Solomon W, Miller S, Dunn E. Scintigraphic differentiation of bone infarction from osteomyelitis. Journal of Pediatrics 107: 685, 1986
Roca RP, Yoshikawa TT. Primary skeletal infectious in heroin users. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 144: 238, 1979
Scoles PV, Aronoll SC. Antimicrobial therapy of childhood skeletal infections. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 66A: 1487, 1984
Squire G, Farara B, Todd J. Diagnosis of neonatal bacterial infection. Pediatrics 64: 60, 1979
Sullivan JA, Vasilell T, Leonard JC. An evaluation of nuclear scanning in orthopaedic infections. Journal of Paediatric Orthopaedics 1: 73, 1981
Tack KJ, Rhame FS, Brown B, Thompson RC. Aspergillus osteomyelitis: report of four cases and review of the literature. American Journal of Medicine 73: 295, 1982
Tauber AI, Berregaard N, Simens E, Wright J. Chronic granulomatous disease: a syndrome of phagocyte oxidase deficiencies. Medicine 62: 286, 1983
Tetzlaff TR, Howard JB, McCracken GH. Antibiotic concentrations in pus and bone of children with osteomyelitis. Journal of Pediatrics 92: 135, 1978
Tetzlaff TR, McCracken GH, Nelson JD. Oral antibiotic therapy for skeletal infections of children. Paediatric Pharmacology and Therapeutics 92: 485, 1978
Wagner DK, Collier D, Rytel MW. Long-term intravenous antibiotic therapy in chronic osteomyelitis. Archives of Internal Medicine. 145: 1073, 1985
Wald ER, Mirro R, Gartner SC. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of acute osteomyelitis by bone scan. Clinical Pediatrics 19: 597, 1980
Webster ADB, Taylor-Robinson D, Furr PM, Asherson GL. Mycoplasma septic arthritis in hypogammaglobulinemia. British Medical Journal 1: 478, 1978
Weinstein MP, Stratton CW, Hawley HB, Ackley A, Relier LB. Multicenter collaborative evaluation of a standardized serum bacterial test as a predictor of therapeutic efficiency in acute and chronic osteomyelitis. American Journal of Medicine 83: 218, 1987
Zimmerman III B, Erickson AD, Mikolich DT. Septic acramioclavicular arthritis and osteomyelitis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arthritis and Rheumatology 32: 11–55, 1989
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dirschl, D.R., Almekinders, L.C. Osteomyelitis. Drugs 45, 29–43 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199345010-00004
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199345010-00004