Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A systematic review of the influence of skin pigmentation on changes in the concentrations of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in plasma/serum following experimental UV irradiation

  • Perspective
  • Published:
Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Defining whether skin pigmentation influences vitamin D photosynthesis is important for delivering accurate public health messages. Current evidence is contradictory. We undertook a systematic review of the published literature to examine the association between skin pigmentation and change in blood concentrations of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D following experimental UV irradiation. Twelve studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria: human study in vivo with non-diseased participants; controlled artificial UV radiation; vitamin D or 25-hydroxyvitamin D measured in serum or plasma; full text in English. In seven studies, vitamin D photosynthesis was reduced in dark-skinned compared with fairer-skinned individuals. In the remaining five studies, only one of which was published after 1990, there was no difference in vitamin D photosynthesis according to skin type. The disparities in these results may be due to small sample sizes and variations in study methodology, including the source, dose and frequency of UV irradiation, phototype classification, and analysis of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Of these, the spectrum emitted by the UV lamps may be significant. No study considered potential modifying factors, such as relevant genetic polymorphisms. On balance, we conclude that pigmented skin has less effective photoproduction of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The quantity of sun exposure needed for dark-skinned, compared with light-skinned, people to achieve vitamin D sufficiency remains uncertain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

1,25(OH)2D:

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D

25(OH)D:

25-Hydroxyvitamin D

7-DHC:

7-Dehydrocholesterol

HPLC:

High-performance liquid chromatography

MED:

Minimal erythema dose

SED:

Standard erythema dose

UV:

Ultraviolet

DBP:

Vitamin D binding protein

References

  1. M. F. Holick, Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2004, 80, 1678S–1688S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. M. F. Holick, J. A. MacLaughlin, M. B. Clark, S. A. Holick, J. T. Potts Jr., R. R. Anderson, I. H. Blank, J. A. Parrish and P. Elias, Photosynthesis of previtamin D3 in human skin and the physiologic consequences, Science, 1980, 210, 203–205.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. M. F. Holick, Vitamin D deficiency, N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 357, 266–281.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. M. F. Holick, J. A. MacLaughlin and S. H. Doppelt, Regulation of cutaneous previtamin D3 photosynthesis in man: skin pigment is not an essential regulator, Science, 1981, 211, 590–593.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. A. F. Hess, L. J. Unger and A. M. Pappenheimer, Experimental rickets in rats: Vii. the prevention of rickets by sunlight, by the rays of the mercury vapor lamp, and by the carbon arc lamp, J. Exp. Med., 1922, 36, 427–446.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. J. Y. Lin and D. E. Fisher, Melanocyte biology and skin pigmentation, Nature, 2007, 445, 843–850.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. M. Brenner and V. J. Hearing, The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 539–549.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. S. S. Harris and B. Dawson-Hughes, Seasonal changes in plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of young American black and white women, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1998, 67, 1232–1236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. S. Nesby-O’Dell, K. S. Scanlon, M. E. Cogswell, C. Gillespie, B. W. Hollis, A. C. Looker, C. Allen, C. Doughertly, E. W. Gunter and B. A. Bowman, Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and determinants among African American and white women of reproductive age: third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2002, 76, 187–192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. A. Mithal, D. A. Wahl, J. P. Bonjour, P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes, J. A. Eisman, G. E. Fuleihan, R. G. Josse, P. Lips, J. Morales-Torres, I. C. S. Advisors, Global vitamin D status and determinants of hypovitaminosis D, Osteoporosis Int., 2009, 20, 1807–1820.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. A. C. Looker, B. Dawson-Hughes, M. S. Calvo, E. W. Gunter and N. R. Sahyoun, Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III, Bone, 2002, 30, 771–777.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. J. E. P. Rockell, C. M. Skeaff, S. M. Williams and T. J. Green, Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of New Zealanders aged 15 years and older, Osteoporosis Int., 2006, 17, 1382–1389.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. M. D. Farrar, R. Kift, S. J. Felton, J. L. Berry, M. T. Durkin, D. Allan, A. Vail, A. R. Webb and L. E. Rhodes, Recommended summer sunlight exposure amounts fail to produce sufficient vitamin D status in UK adults of South Asian origin, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2011, 94, 1219–1224.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. D. L. Weed, Methodologic guidelines for review papers, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 1997, 89, 6–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. T. B. Fitzpatrick, The validity and practicality of sun-reactive skin types I through VI, Arch. Dermatol., 1988, 124, 869–871.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. M. K. B. Bogh, A. V. Schmedes, P. A. Philipsen, E. Thieden and H. C. Wulf, Vitamin D production after UVB exposure depends on baseline vitamin D and total cholesterol but not on skin pigmentation, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 546–553.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. M. D. Farrar, A. R. Webb, R. Kift, M. T. Durkin, D. Allan, A. Herbert, J. L. Berry and L. E. Rhodes, Efficacy of a dose range of simulated sunlight exposures in raising vitamin D status in South Asian adults: implications for targeted guidance on sun exposure, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2013, 97, 1210–1216.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. L. A. G. Armas, S. Dowell, M. Akhter, S. Duthuluru, C. Huerter, B. W. Hollis, R. Lund and R. P. Heaney, Ultraviolet-B radiation increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: The effect of UVB dose and skin color, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2007, 57, 588–593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. T. L. Clemens, J. S. Adams, S. L. Henderson and M. F. Holick, Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3, Lancet, 1982, 1, 74–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. L. Y. Matsuoka, J. Wortsman, J. G. Haddad, P. Kolm and B. W. Hollis, Racial pigmentation and the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin-D, Arch. Dermatol., 1991, 127, 536–538.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. W. F. Brazerol, A. J. McPhee, F. Mimouni, B. L. Specker and R. C. Tsang, Serial ultraviolet B exposure and serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D response in young adult American blacks and whites: no racial differences, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 1988, 7, 111–118.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. T. C. Stamp, Factors in human vitamin D nutrition and in the production and cure of classical rickets, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 1975, 34, 119–130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. C. W. Lo, P. W. Paris and M. F. Holick, Indian and Pakistani immigrants have the same capacity as Caucasians to produce vitamin D in response to ultraviolet irradiation, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1986, 44, 683–685.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. L. Y. Matsuoka, J. Wortsman, J. G. Haddad and B. W. Hollis, Skin types and epidermal photosynthesis of vitamin-D3, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1990, 23, 525–526.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. A. C. Green, Premature ageing of the skin in a Queensland population, Med. J. Aust., 1991, 155(473–474), 477–478.

    Google Scholar 

  26. M. F. Holick, The photobiology of vitamin-D and its consequences for humans, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1985, 453, 1–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. L. O. Bjorn, Vitamin D synthesis may be independent of skin pigmentation only with UV of short wavelength, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 2848–2850.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. T. Tadokoro, Y. Yamaguchi, J. Batzer, S. G. Coelho, B. Z. Zmudzka, S. A. Miller, R. Wolber, J. Z. Beer and V. J. Hearing, Mechanisms of skin tanning in different racial/ethnic groups in response to ultraviolet radiation, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2005, 124, 1326–1332.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. J. Barth, B. Gerlach, P. Knuschke and B. Lehmann, Serum 25(OH)D3 and ultraviolet exposure of residents in an old people’s home in Germany, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 1992, 9, 229–231.

    Google Scholar 

  30. M. K. Bogh, A. V. Schmedes, P. A. Philipsen, E. Thieden and H. C. Wulf, Interdependence between body surface area and ultraviolet B dose in vitamin D production: a randomized controlled trial, Br. J. Dermatol., 2011, 164, 163–169.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. M. F. Holick, Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets, J. Clin. Invest., 2006, 116, 2062–2072.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. C. T. Sempos, H. W. Vesper, K. W. Phinney, L. M. Thienpont and P. M. Coates, Vitamin D Standardization Program (VDSP), Vitamin D status as an international issue: National surveys and the problem of standardization, Scand. J. Clin. Lab Invest., 2012, 72, 32–40.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. F. Granado-Lorencio, I. Blanco-Navarro and B. Perez-Sacrsitan, Critical evaluation of assays for vitamin D status, Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr., 2013, 16, 734–740.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. W. D. Fraser and A. M. Milan, Vitamin D assays: past and present debates, difficulties, and developments, Calcif. Tissue Int., 2013, 92, 118–127.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. A. R. Webb, B. R. Decosta and M. F. Holick, Sunlight regulates the cutaneous production of vitamin-D3 by causing its photodegradation, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 1989, 68, 882–887.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. R. P. Heaney, K. M. Davies, T. C. Chen, M. F. Holick and M. J. Barger-Lux, Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2003, 77, 204–210.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. R. Saternus, S. Pilz, S. Graber, M. Kleber, W. Marz, T. Vogt and J. Reichrath, A closer look at evolution: Variants (SNPs) of genes involved in skin pigmentation, including EXOC2, TYR, TYRP1, and DCT, are associated with 25(OH)D serum concentration, Endocrinology, 2015, 156, 39–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. A. Slominski and A. E. Postlethwaite, Skin under the sun: when melanin pigment meets vitamin D, Endocrinology, 2015, 156, 1–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. A. J. Samanek, E. J. Croager, P. Gies, E. Milne, R. Prince, A. J. McMichael, R. M. Lucas and T. Slevin, Estimates of beneficial and harmful sun exposure times during the year for major Australian population centres, Med. J. Aust., 2006, 184, 338–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. T. C. Chen, F. Chimeh, Z. R. Lu, J. Mathieu, K. S. Person, A. Q. Zhang, N. Kohn, S. Martinello, R. Berkowitz and M. F. Holick, Factors that influence the cutaneous synthesis and dietary sources of vitamin D, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 2007, 460, 213–217.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. F. Libon, E. Cavalier and A. F. Nikkels, Skin color is relevant to vitamin D synthesis, Dermatology, 2013, 227, 250–254.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

    Fan Xiang & Robyn Lucas

  2. Department of Dermatology, Leiden University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 9600, NL-2300 RC, Leiden, Netherlands

    Frank de Gruijl

  3. Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, UK

    Mary Norval

Authors
  1. Fan Xiang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robyn Lucas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Frank de Gruijl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mary Norval
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Xiang, F., Lucas, R., de Gruijl, F. et al. A systematic review of the influence of skin pigmentation on changes in the concentrations of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in plasma/serum following experimental UV irradiation. Photochem Photobiol Sci 14, 2138–2146 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/c5pp00168d

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c5pp00168d

Search

Navigation