Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Natural Mentors in the Lives of African American Adolescent Mothers: Tracking Relationships Over Time

  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this study, we focused on the academic attainment of African American adolescents as they made the transition from pregnancy or recent delivery to 2 years postpartum. We examined the duration, characteristics, and effects of relationships that endured over 2 years postpartum, and the role of adolescents' mentor versus maternal support. Compared to participants who did not identify mentors at either time point, participants whose mentor relationships endured over the course of the 2-year study were more likely to have remained in school or graduated. Subsequent analyses revealed that long-term mentor relationships were characterized by weekly and, in many instances, daily interactions. Additionally, participants in long-term mentor relationships reported deriving more emotional support from their mentors than from their mothers, were more satisfied with mentor support, and indicated that this support was more important to them than maternal support.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbott, D. A., Meredith, H., Self-Kelly, R., and Davis, M. E. (1997). The influence of a Big Brothers program on the adjustment of boys in single-parent families. J. Psychol. 131(2): 143–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrera, M., Sandler, I. N., and Ramsay, T. B. (1981). Preliminary development of a scale of social support: Studies on college students. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 9(4): 435–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beam, M. R., Chen, C., and Greenberger, E. (2002). The nature of adolescents' relationships with their “Very Important” Nonparental Adults. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2: 305–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blechman, E. A. (1992). Mentors for high-risk minority youth: From effective communication to bicultural competence. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 21(2): 160–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blechman, E. A., and Culhane, S. E. (1993). Aggressive, depressive, and prosocial coping with affective challenges in early adolescence. J. Early Adolesc. 13(4): 361–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broh, B. B. (2002). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement: Who benefits and why? Sociol. Educ. 75(1: 69–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Dev. Psychol. 22(6): 723–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Guo, G., and Furstenberg, F. F. (1993). Who drops out of and who continues beyond high school? A 20-year Time 2 of Black urban youth J. Res. Adolesc. 3(3: 271–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Child Trends Inc. (1995, October). New Report Explains Explosion in Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing [On-line]. Available: http://www.childtrends.org/shortpub.htm

  • Child Trends Inc. (1996, October). Facts at A Glance[On-line]. Available: http://www.childtrends.org/shortpub.htm

  • Child Trends Inc. (1997, October). Facts at A Glance [On-Line]. Available: http://www.childtrends.org/shortpub.htm

  • Coley, R. L. (2001). (In)visible men: Emerging research on low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers. Am. Psychol. 56(9): 743–753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, P. H. (1987). The meaning of motherhood in black culture and black mother/daughter relationships. Sage: Schol. J. Black Women 4: 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Contreras, J. M., Rhodes, J. E., and Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1995). Pregnant, African American teenagers' expectations of their infants' temperament: Individual and social network influences. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 16(2): 283–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, M. L., and Unger, D. G. (1991). The role of family support in determining developmental outcomes in children of teen mothers. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 21: 217–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C. E., Hessling, R. M., Bacon, P. L., and Russell, D. W. (1998). Predictors and correlates of continuing involvement with the baby's father among adolescent mothers. J. Fam. Psychol. 12: 369–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darling, N., Hamilton, S., Toyokawa, T., and Matsuda, S. (2002). Naturally occurring mentoring in Japan and the United States: Social roles and correlates. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2): 245–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A., and Rhodes, J. E. (1996). Pregnant and parenting, female African American adolescents' relationships with their mothers and fathers: Support, problems, and associations with depression. J. Res. Adolesc. 7: 331–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., and Erickson, M. F. (1996). Responsible Fathering: An Overview and Conceptual Framework. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Washington, DC. Retrieved June 26, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/concept.htm

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J. C., and Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2): 157–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edin, K. (2000). What do low-income single mothers say about marriage? Soc. Probl. 47(1: 112–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edin, K., and Lein, L. (1997). Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive on Welfare. Russell Sage Foundation, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ensher, E. A., Thomas, C., and Murphy, S. E. (2001). Comparison of traditional, step-ahead, and peer mentoring on proteges' support, satisfaction, and perceptions of career success: A social exchange perspective. J. Bus. Psychol. 15(3): 419–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1962). On narcissism: An introduction. In Strachey, J. (ed. and trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol.14). Hogarth Press, London, pp. 73–102. (Original work published 1914)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gee, C., and Rhodes, J. E. (1999). The role of male partners in the postpartum transition of urban adolescent mothers. Merrill-Palmer Q. 45: 512–532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, J. B., and Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2): 199–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, J. B., and Tierney, J. P. (1998). Does mentoring work? An impact study of the Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Eval. Rev. 22: 403–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, C. D. (1987). Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality, Pregnancy and Childbearing. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jekielek, S. M., Moore, K. A., Hair, E. C., and Scarupa, H. J. (2002). Mentoring: A Promising Strategy for Youth Development [On-line]. Available:http://www.childtrends.org/PDF/MentoringBrief2002.pdf

  • Klaw, E. L., and Rhodes, J. E. (1995). Mentor relationships and the career development of African-American pregnant and parenting adolescents. Psychol. Women Q. 19: 551–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1984). How Does Analysis Cure? University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, A., and Nidiffer, J. (1996). Beating the Odds: How the Poor Get to College. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, D. J., Darrow, C. N., Klein, E. B., Levinson, M. H., and McKee, B. (1978). The Seasons of a Man's Life. Ballantine, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • LoSciuto, L., Rajala, A. K., Townsend, T. N., and Taylor, A. S. (1996). An outcome evaluation of Across Ages: An intergenerational mentoring approach to drug prevention. J. Adolesc. Res. 11: 116–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., and Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents Dev. and Psychopathol. 5(4: 703–717.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAdoo, H. (ed.) (1987). Black Families. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mott, F. L., and Maxwell, N. L. (1981). School-age mothers: 1968 and 1979. Fam. Plann. Perspect. 13: 287–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musick, J. S. (1993). Young, Poor, and Pregnant. Yale University Press, New Haven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panzarine, S. (1986). Stressors, coping and the social support of adolescent mothers. J. Adolesc. Health Care 7: 153–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prater, L. P. (1995). Never married biological teen mother headed household. Marr. Fam. Rev. 20(3/4): 305–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D., and Bowling, A. (2000). The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon & Shuster, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Bogat, G. A., Roffman, J., Edelman, P., and Galasso, L. (2002). Youth mentoring in perspective: Introduction to the special issue. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2): 149–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., and Davis, A. B. (1996). Supportive ties between non-parent adults and urban adolescent, girls. In Leadbeater, B. J., and Way, N. (Eds.), Urban Girls: Resisting Stereotypes, Creating Identities New York University Press, New York, pp. 213–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Ebert, L., and Fischer, K. (1992). Natural mentors: An overlooked resource in the social networks of young, African-American mothers. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 20: 445–461.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Gee, C. B., Reddy, R., and Meyers, A. B. (2002). The Social Support Network Questionnaire.Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., and Resch, N. R. (2000). Agents of change: Pathways through which mentoring relationships influence adolescents' academic adjustment. Child Dev. 71: 1662–1671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., and Woods, M. (1995). Comfort and conflict in the relationships of pregnant, minority adolescents: Social support as a moderator of social strain. J. Commun. Psychol. 23(1): 74–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Scales, P. C., Gibbons, J. L. (1996). Extended family members and unrelated adults in the lives of young adolescents: A research agenda. J. Early Adolesc. 16: 365–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spieker, S. J., and Bensley, L. (1994). Roles of living arrangements and grandmother social support in adolescent mothering and infant attachment. Dev. Psychol. 30: 102–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stack, C. B. (1974). All Our Kin. Harper and Row, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Styles, M. B., and Morrow, K. V. (1995). Understanding How Youth and Elders form Relationships: A Study of Four Linking Lifetimes Programs. Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, A. (1996). From mentor to muse: Recasting the role of women in relationship with urban adolescent girls. In Leadbeater, B. J. R., and Way, N. (eds.), Urban Girls: Resisting Stereotypes, Creating Identities New York University Press, New York, pp. 226–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., and Flickinger, S. M. (1993). Influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African American adolescents. Dev. Psychol. 29: 382–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. M., Gilligan, C., and Sullivan, A. M. (1995). Between Voice and Silence: Women and Girls, Race and Relationship. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Unger, D. G., and Cooley, M. (1992). Partner and grandmother contact in Black and White teen parent families. J. Adolesc. Health 13(7): 546–552.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upchurch, D. M. (1993). Early schooling and childbearing experiences: Implications for postsecondary attendance. J. Res. Adolesc. 3(4): 423–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag, L., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Not just “Ghosts in the Nursery”: Contemporaneous intergenerational relationships and parenting in young African American families. Child Dev. 67: 2131–2147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., and Smith, S. (1982). Vulnerable But Invincible: A Study of Resilient Children. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett, J. B., Ayoub, C. C., and Robinson, D. (1991). Using growth modeling to examine systematic differences in growth: An example of change in the functioning of families at risk of maladaptive parenting, child abuse, or neglect. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 59: 38–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. J. (1996). When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. Knopf, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zabin, L. S., and Hayward, S. C. (1993). Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Childbearing. Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., and Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: A study with urban youth. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 30(2): 221–243.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, San Jose State University, One Washington Square, San Jose, California, 95192-0120

    Elena L. Klaw

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Boston

    Jean E. Rhodes (Professor)

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

    Louise F. Fitzgerald (Professor)

Authors
  1. Elena L. Klaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jean E. Rhodes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Louise F. Fitzgerald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Klaw, E.L., Rhodes, J.E. & Fitzgerald, L.F. Natural Mentors in the Lives of African American Adolescent Mothers: Tracking Relationships Over Time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 32, 223–232 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022551721565

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022551721565

Search

Navigation