Abstract
The present study investigates the effect of free radical formation due to mobile phone exposure and effect on fertility pattern in 70-day-old male Wistar rats (sham exposed and exposed). Exposure took place in Plexiglas cages for 2 h a day for 35 days to mobile phone frequency. The specific absorption rate was estimated to be 0.9 W/kg. An analysis of antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase (P < 0.001) and superoxide dismutase (P < 0.007) showed a decrease, while an increase in catalase (P < 0.005) was observed. Malondialdehyde (P < 0.003) showed an increase and histone kinase (P = 0.006) showed a significant decrease in the exposed group. Micronuclei also show a significant decrease (P < 0.002) in the exposed group. A significant change in sperm cell cycle of G0–G1 (P = 0.042) and G2/M (P = 0.022) were recorded. Generation of free radicals was recorded to be significantly increased (P = 0.035). Our findings on antioxidant, malondialdehyde, histone kinase, micronuclei, and sperm cell cycle are clear indications of an infertility pattern, initiated due to an overproduction of reactive oxygen species. It is concluded that radiofrequency electromagnetic wave from commercially available cell phones might affect the fertilizing potential of spermatozoa.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Skakkebaek, N. E., Jorgensen, N., & Main, K. M. (2006). Is human fecundity declining? International Journal of Andrology, 29, 2–11.
Sallmen, M., Weinberg, C. R., Baird, D. D., Lindbohm, M. L., & Wilcox, A. J. (2005). Has human fertility declined over time? Why we may never know. Epidemiology, 16, 494–499.
Cleary, S. F. (1995). Reproductive toxic effects of electromagnetic radiation. In R. J. Witorsch (Ed.), Reproductive toxicology (2nd ed., pp. 263–280). New York: Raven.
Akdag, M. Z., Celik, M. S., Ketani, A., Nergiz, Y., Deniz, M., & Dasdag, S. (1999). Effect of chronic low-intensity microwave radiation on sperm count, sperm morphology, and testicular and epididymal tissues of rats. Electro- and Magnetobiology, 18, 133–145.
Kesari, K. K., & Behari, J. (2010). Effect of microwave at 2.45 GHz radiations on reproductive system of male rats. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 92, 1135–1147.
Paulraj, R., & Behari, J. (2006). Single strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells exposed to microwave radiation. Mutation Research, 596, 76–80.
Kunjilwar, K. K., & Behari, J. (1993). Effect of amplitude-modulated radio frequency radiation on cholinergic system of developing rats. Brain Research, 601, 321–324.
Sarkar, S., Ali, S., & Behari, J. (1994). Effect of low power microwave on the mouse genome: A direct DNA analysis. Mutation Research, 320, 141–147.
Malyapa, R. S., Ahern, E. W., Straube, W., Moros, E. G., Pickard, W. F., & Roti, J. L. (1997). Measurement of DNA damage after exposure to electromagnetic radiation in the cellular phone communication frequency band (835.62 and 847.74 MHz). Radiation Research, 148, 618–627.
Khillare, B., & Behari, J. (1998). Effect of amplitude modulated radio frequency radiation on reproduction pattern in rats. Electro- and Magnetobiology, 17, 43.
Dasdag, S., Ketani, M. A., Akdag, Z., Ersay, A. R., Sari, I., & Demirtas, O. C. (1999). Whole-body microwave exposure emitted by cellular phones and testicular function of rats. Urology Research, 27, 219–223.
Salama, N., Kishimoto, T., & Kanayama, H. (2003). Effects of exposure to a mobile phone on testicular function and structure in adult rabbit. International Journal of Andrology, 33, 88–94.
Behari, J., & Kesari, K. K. (2006). Effects of microwave radiations on reproductive system of male rats. Embryo Talk, 1, 81–85.
Erogul, O., Oztas, E., Yildirim, I., Kir, T., Aydur, E., & Komesli, G. (2006). Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular phone on human sperm motility: An in vitro study. Arch Medical Research, 37, 840–843.
Giwercman, A., Richthoff, J., Hjollund, H., Bonde, J. P., Jepson, K., & Frohm, B. (2003). Correlation between sperm motility and sperm chromatin structure assay parameters. Fertility and Sterility, 80, 1404–1412.
Agarwal, A., Deepinder, F., Sharma, R. K., Ranga, G., & Li, J. (2008). Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: An observational study. Fertility and Sterility, 89, 124–128.
Spano, M., & Evenson, D. P. (1993). Flow cytometric analysis for reproductive biology. Biology of the Cell, 78, 53–62.
Nunez, R. (2001). DNA measurement and cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry. Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 3, 67–70.
Rosenthal, G., & Obe, G. (1989). Effects of 50 Hz electromagnetic fields on proliferation and on chromosome alterations in human peripheral lymphocytes untreated or pretreated with chemical mutagens. Mutation Research, 210, 329–335.
Antonopoulos, B., Yang, A., Stamm, W., Heller, D., & Obe, G. (1995). Cytological effects of 50 Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphocytes in vitro. Mutation Research, 346, 151–157.
Liburdy, W. L. (1997). Laboratory studies on extremely low frequency (50/60 Hz) magnetic fields and carcinogenesis. In R. G. Stevens, B. W. Wilson, & L. E. Anderson (Eds.), The melatonin hypothesis. Breast cancer and use of electric power (pp. 585–667). Columbus: Batelle.
Kesari, K. K., & Behari, J. (2010). Microwave exposure affecting reproductive system in male rats. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 162, 416–428.
Kumar, S., Kesari, K., & Behari, J. (2010). Influence of microwave exposure on fertility of male rats. Fertility Sterility. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.04.078.
Criswell, K. A., Krishna, G., Zielinski, D., Urda, G. A., Theiss, J. C., Juneau, P., et al. (1998). Use of acridine orange in: Flow cytometric assessment of micronuclei induction. Mutation Research, 414, 63–75.
Oldendorf, W. H. (1960). Focal neurological lesions produced by microwave irradiation. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine I, 72, 432.
Tolgskaya, M. S., & Gordon, Z. V. (1959). Morphological changes in animals exposed to 10 cm microwaves. Vop Kurortol Fizioter. Lech. fiz. Kul’t, 1, 21.
Kalina, M., Socher, R., Rotem, R., & Naor, Z. (1995). Ultrastructural localization of protein kinase C in human sperm. Journal of Histochem Cytochem, 43, 439–445.
Rotem, R., Paz, G. F., Hommonai, Z. T., Kalina, M., & Naor, Z. (1990). PKC is present in human sperm: Possible role in flagellar motility. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, USA, 87, 7305–7308.
Balci, M., Devrim, E., & Durak, I. (2007). Effects of mobile phones on oxidant/antioxidant balance in cornea and lens of rats. Current Eye Research, 32, 21–25.
Ray, S., & Behari, J. (1990). Physiological changes in rats after exposure to low levels of microwaves. Radiation Research, 125, 199–201.
Kesari, K. K., Kumar, S., & Behari, J. (2010). Mobile phone usage and male infertility in Wistar rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 48, 987–992.
Narayanan, S. N., Kumar, R. S., Potu, B. K., Nayak, S., & Maneesh, M. (2009). Spatial memory performance of Wistar rats exposed to mobile phone. Clinics, 64, 231–234.
Durney, C. H., Iskander, M. F., Massoudi, H., & Johnson, C. C. (1984). An empirical formula for broad band SAR calculations of prolate spheroidal models of humans and animal. In J. M. Osepchuk (Ed.), Biological effects of electromagnetic radiation (pp. 85–90). New York: IEEE Press.
Buege, J. A., & Aust, S. D. (1978). Microsomal lipid peroxidation. Methods in Enzymology, 52, 302–310.
Lowry, O. H., Resebrough, N. J., Farr, A. L., & Randall, R. J. (1951). Protein measurement with folin-phenol reagent. Journal of Biochemistry, 193, 265–275.
Hayashi, I., Morishita, Y., Imai, K., Nakamura, M., Nakachi, K., & Hayashi, T. (2007). High-throughput spectrophotometric assay of reactive oxygen species in serum. Mutation Research, 631, 55–61.
Macleod, J. (1943). The role of oxygen in the metabolism and motility of human spermatozoa. The American Journal of Physiology, 138, 512–518.
Aitken, R. J., Harkiss, D., & Buckingham, D. (1993). Relationship between iron catalyzed lipid-peroxidation potential and human sperm function. Journal of Reproductive Fertility, 98, 257–265.
Aitken, R. J., Irvine, D. S., & Wu, F. C. (1991). Prospective analysis of spermoocyte fusion and reactive oxygen species generation as criteria for the diagnosis of infertility. Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 164, 542–551.
Sukcharoen, N., Keith, J., Irvine, D. S., & Aitken, R. J. (1995). Predicting the fertilizing potential of human sperm suspensions in-vitro—Importance of sperm morphology and leukocyte contamination. Fertility and Sterility, 63, 1293–1300.
Pasqualotto, F. F., Sharma, R. K., Nelson, D. R., Thomas, A. J., & Agarwal, A. (2000). Relationship between oxidative stress, semen characteristics, and clinical diagnosis in men undergoing infertility investigation. Fertility and Sterility, 73, 459–464.
Shen, H. M., & Ong, C. N. (2000). Detection of oxidative DNA damage in human sperm and its association with sperm function and male infertility. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 2, 529–536.
Agarwal, A., Saleh, R. A., & Bedaiwy, M. A. (2003). Role of reactive oxygen species in the pathophysiology of human reproduction. Fertility and Sterility, 79, 829–843.
Kumar, S., Kesari, K. K., & Behari, J. (2010). Evaluation of genotoxic effects in male Wistar rats following microwave exposure. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 48, 586–592.
Ydon, L., Petit, L., Delagrange, P., Strosberg, A. D., & Jockers, R. (2000). Functional expression of MT2 (Mel 1b) melatonin receptors in human PAZ6 adipocytes. Endocrinology, 142, 4264–4271.
Lai, H., & Singh, N. P. (1996). Double strand breaks in rats brain cells after acute exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic radiation. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 69, 513–521.
Kesari, K. K., Behari, J., & Kumar, S. (2010). Mutagenic response of 2.45 GHz radiation exposure on rat brain. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 86, 334–343.
Kesari, K. K., & Behari, J. (2009). Fifty-gigahertz microwave exposure effect of radiations on rat brain. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 158, 126–139.
Agarwal, A., Desai, N. R., Makker, K., Varghese, A., Mouradi, R., & Sabanegh, E. (2009). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: An in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility, 92, 1318–1325.
Dasdag, S., Akdag, M. Z., & Aksen, F. (2003). Whole body exposure of rats to microwaves emitted from a cell phone does not affect the testes. Bioelectromagnetics, 24, 182–188.
Vijayalaxmi, & Obe, G. (2004). Controversial cytogenetic observations in mammalian somatic cells exposed to radiofrequency radiation. Radiation Research, 162, 481–496.
Sakuma, N., Komatsubara, Y., Takeda, H., Hirose, H., Sekijima, M., Nojima, T., et al. (2006). DNA strand breaks are not induced in human cells exposed to 2.1425 GHz band CW and W-CDMA modulated radiofrequency fields allocated to mobile radio base stations. Bioelectromagnetics, 27, 51–57.
Alvarez, J. G., Touchstone, C. J., Blasco, L., & Storey, B. T. (1987). Spontaneous lipid peroxidation and production of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide in human spermatozoa. SOD as major enzyme protectant against oxygen toxicity. Journal of Andrology, 8, 33–89.
Condell, R. A., & Tappel, A. L. (1993). Evidence for suitability of glutathione peroxidase as a protective enzyme: Studies of oxidative damage, restoration and proteolysis. Archive Biochemistry Biophysics, 223, 407.
Russo, A., Troncoso, N., Sanchez, F., & Vanella, A. (2006). Propolis protects human spermatozoa from DNA damage caused by benzopyrene and exogenous reactive oxygen species. Life Sciences, 78, 1401–1406.
Amara, S., Abdelmelek, H., Garrel, C., Douki, T., Ravanat, J. L., Favier, A., et al. (2006). Effects of subchronic exposure to static magnetic field on testicular function in rats. Archives of Medical Research, 37, 947–952.
Reiter, R. J. (1997). Melatonin aspects of exposure to low frequency electric and magnetic fields. In J. C. Lin (Ed.), Advances in electromagnetic fields in living systems (Vol. 2, pp. 1–27). New York: Plenum.
Dunphy, W. G., Brizuela, L., & Beach, D. (1988). The Xenopus cdc2 protein is a component of MPF, a cytoplasmic regulator of mitosis. Cell, 54, 423–431.
Gautier, J., Norbury, C., Lohka, M., Nuese, P., & Mailer, J. (1988). Purified maturation-promoting factor contains the product of a Xenopus homolog of the fission yeast cell cycle control gene cdc2. Cell, 54, 433–439.
Pawse, A. R., Margery, G. O., & Stocken, L. A. (1971). Histone kinase and cell division. Biochemistry Journal, 122, 713–719.
Ozturk, M. A., Karcaaltincaba, M., & Criss, W. E. (1993). Cell cycle control part I cdc related kinases. Journal of Islamic Academy of Sciences, 6, 311–318.
Garaj-Vrhovac, V., Fucic, A., & Horvat, D. (1992). The correlation between the frequency of micronuclei and specific chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to microwave radiation in vitro. Mutation Research, 281, 181–186.
Kim, J. Y., Kim, H. T., Moon, K. H., & Shin, H. J. (2007). Long-term exposure of rats to a 2.45 GHz electromagnetic field: Effects on reproductive function. Korean Journal of Urology, 48, 1308–1314.
Lee, J. S., Ahn, S. S., Jung, K. C., Kim, Y. W., & Lee, S. K. (2004). Effects of 60 Hz electromagnetic field exposure on testicular germ cell apoptosis in mice. Asian Journal of Andrology, 6, 29–34.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, for the financial assistance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kesari, K.K., Kumar, S. & Behari, J. Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Wave Exposure from Cellular Phones on the Reproductive Pattern in Male Wistar Rats. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 164, 546–559 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-010-9156-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-010-9156-0