Abstract
With increasing survival, cognitive problems after systemic treatment for non-CNS cancers are a growing concern. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a noninvasive neuroimaging technique that has the potential to uncover the neural circuitry underlying cognitive problems after systemic treatment in cancer patients. Here, we provide an in depth review of the 14 fMRI studies that have been published to date on potential neurotoxic side effects of systemic treatment for non-CNS cancers. Cross-sectional studies in breast cancer survivors show a consistent pattern of hypoactivation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during various executive functioning tasks 5 to 10 years after completion of adjuvant chemotherapy that are sometimes associated with worse cognitive performance compared to cancer-specific or no-cancer controls. These findings suggest reduced neural functioning as a result of chemotherapy in brain regions that support cognitive functioning. With regard to episodic memory, hypoactivation at encoding is followed by hyperactivation at retrieval, suggestive of impairments in memory encoding that are compensated by neural hyperactivation to perform adequate memory retrieval. Prospective studies of executive functioning and episodic memory show a more complex picture of hypo- and hyperactivation that is possibly due to various counteracting mechanisms relatively shortly after chemotherapy. Two small studies in prostate cancer patients, finally, provide preliminary evidence for reduced activation in task-relevant brain regions after androgen deprivation therapy, suggestive of reduction of neural function. Statistical correction for multiple comparisons in the reviewed studies is typically quite lenient. We suggest that future studies should preferably include larger sample sizes to allow proper statistical correction for multiple comparisons and include comprehensive neurocognitive tests and multimodal MRI to facilitate the interpretation of the observed fMRI findings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abraham, J., Haut, M. W., Moran, M. T., Filburn, S., Lemieux, S., & Kuwabara, H. (2008). Adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: effects on cerebral white matter seen in diffusion tensor imaging. Clinical Breast Cancer, 8, 88–91.
Ahles, T. A., Saykin, A. J., McDonald, B. C., Li, Y., Furstenberg, C. T., Hanscom, B. S., et al. (2010). Longitudinal assessment of cognitive changes associated with adjuvant treatment for breast cancer: impact of age and cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 28, 4434–4440.
Ahles, T. A., Root, J. C., & Ryan, E. L. (2012). Cancer- and cancer treatment-associated cognitive change: an update on the state of the science. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 30, 3675–3686.
Barona, A., Reynolds, C. R., & Chastain, R. (1984). A demographically based index of premorbid intelligence for the Wais-R. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 885–887.
Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1990). BAI, Beck anxiety inventory. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory II. San Antonio: Psychological Coorporation.
Benedict, R. H., Schretlen, D., Groninger, L., & Brandt, J. (1998). Hopkins verbal learning test-revised: normative data and analysis of inter-form and test-retest reliability. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 12, 43–55.
Bennett, C. M., & Miller, M. B. (2010). How reliable are the results from functional magnetic resonance imaging? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191, 133–155.
Bracken, B. A., & Howell, K. (2004). Clinical assessment of depression: Professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Bruno, J., Hosseini, S. M., & Kesler, S. (2012). Altered resting state functional brain network topology in chemotherapy-treated breast cancer survivors. Neurobiology of Disease, 48, 329–338.
Bullmore, E., & Sporns, O. (2009). Complex brain networks: graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 186–198.
Carp, J. (2012a). On the plurality of (methodological) worlds: estimating the analytic flexibility of FMRI experiments. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 149.
Carp, J. (2012b). The secret lives of experiments: methods reporting in the fMRI literature. Neuroimage, 63, 289–300.
Cella, D. F., Tulsky, D. S., Gray, G., Sarafian, B., Linn, E., Bonomi, A., et al. (1993). The functional assessment of cancer therapy scale: development and validation of the general measure. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 11, 570–557.
Chao, H. H., Uchio, E., Zhang, S., Hu, S., Bednarski, S. R., Luo, X., et al. (2012). Effects of androgen deprivation on brain function in prostate cancer patients - a prospective observational cohort analysis. BMC Cancer, 12, 371.
Cherrier, M. M., Aubin, S., & Higano, C. S. (2009). Cognitive and mood changes in men undergoing intermittent combined androgen blockade for non-metastatic prostate cancer. Psychooncology, 18, 237–247.
Cherrier, M. M., Borghesani, P. R., Shelton, A. L., & Higano, C. S. (2010). Changes in neuronal activation patterns in response to androgen deprivation therapy: a pilot study. BMC Cancer, 10, 1.
Cimprich, B., Reuter-Lorenz, P., Nelson, J., Clark, P. M., Therrien, B., Normolle, D., et al. (2010). Prechemotherapy alterations in brain function in women with breast cancer. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32, 324–331.
Collins, B., Mackenzie, J., Tasca, G. A., Scherling, C., & Smith, A. (2013). Cognitive effects of chemotherapy in breast cancer patients: a dose–response study. Psychooncology, 22, 1517–1527.
Conroy, S. K., McDonald, B. C., Smith, D. J., Moser, L. R., West, J. D., Kamendulis, L. M., et al. (2013). Alterations in brain structure and function in breast cancer survivors: effect of post-chemotherapy interval and relation to oxidative DNA damage. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 137, 493–502.
de Ruiter, M. B., Reneman, L., Boogerd, W., Veltman, D. J., van Dam, F. S., Nederveen, A. J., et al. (2011). Cerebral hyporesponsiveness and cognitive impairment 10 years after chemotherapy for breast cancer. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 1206–1219.
de Ruiter, M. B., Oosterlaan, J., Veltman, D. J., van den Brink, W., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2012a). Similar hyporesponsiveness of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in problem gamblers and heavy smokers during an inhibitory control task. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 121, 81–89.
de Ruiter, M. B., Reneman, L., Boogerd, W., Veltman, D. J., Caan, M., Douaud, G., et al. (2012b). Late effects of high-dose adjuvant chemotherapy on white and gray matter in breast cancer survivors: converging results from multimodal magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 2971–2983.
Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J. H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Deprez, S., Amant, F., Yigit, R., Porke, K., Verhoeven, J., Van den Stock, J., et al. (2011). Chemotherapy-induced structural changes in cerebral white matter and its correlation with impaired cognitive functioning in breast cancer patients. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 480–493.
Deprez, S., Amant, F., Smeets, A., Peeters, R., Leemans, A., Van Hecke, W., et al. (2012). Longitudinal assessment of chemotherapy-induced structural changes in cerebral white matter and its correlation with impaired cognitive functioning. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 30(3), 274–281.
Eyler, L. T., Sherzai, A., Kaup, A. R., & Jeste, D. V. (2011). A review of functional brain imaging correlates of successful cognitive aging. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 115–122.
Ferguson, R. J., McDonald, B. C., Saykin, A. J., & Ahles, T. A. (2007). Brain structure and function differences in monozygotic twins: possible effects of breast cancer chemotherapy. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 25, 3866–3870.
Heaton, R. K., & Staff, P. A. R. (2004). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Computer Version 4 Research Edition (WCST: CV4). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Hesbacher, P. T., Rickels, K., Morris, R. J., Newman, H., & Rosenfeld, H. (1980). Psychiatric illness in family practice. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41, 6–10.
Kesler, S. R., Bennett, F. C., Mahaffey, M. L., & Spiegel, D. (2009). Regional brain activation during verbal declarative memory in metastatic breast cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 15, 6665–6673.
Kesler, S. R., Kent, J. S., & O'Hara, R. (2011). Prefrontal cortex and executive function impairments in primary breast cancer. Archives of Neurology, 68, 1447–1453.
Koppelmans, V., Groot, M. D., de Ruiter, M. B., Boogerd, W., Seynaeve, C., Vernooij, M. W., et al. (2012). Global and focal white matter integrity in breast cancer survivors 20 years after adjuvant chemotherapy. Human Brain Mapping epub ahead of print.
Kriegeskorte, N., Simmons, W. K., Bellgowan, P. S., & Baker, C. I. (2009). Circular analysis in systems neuroscience: the dangers of double dipping. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 535–540.
Lopez Zunini, R. A., Scherling, C., Wallis, N., Collins, B., Mackenzie, J., Bielajew, C. et al. (2012). Differences in verbal memory retrieval in breast cancer chemotherapy patients compared to healthy controls: a prospective fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior epub ahead of print.
Lorr, M., McNAir, D. M., Heuchert, J. W. P., & Droppleman, L. F. (2003). Profile of Mood States (POMS). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
McDonald, B. C., Conroy, S. K., Ahles, T. A., West, J. D., & Saykin, A. J. (2012). Alterations in brain activation during working memory processing associated with breast cancer and treatment: a prospective functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 30, 2500–2508.
Nelson, C. J., Lee, J. S., Gamboa, M. C., & Roth, A. J. (2008). Cognitive effects of hormone therapy in men with prostate cancer: a review. Cancer, 113, 1097–1106.
Petrides, M. (2005). Lateral prefrontal cortex: architectonic and functional organization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences., 360, 781–795.
Poldrack, R. A. (2007). Region of interest analysis for fMRI. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2, 67–70.
Poldrack, R. A., Fletcher, P. C., Henson, R. N., Worsley, K. J., Brett, M., & Nichols, T. E. (2008). Guidelines for reporting an fMRI study. Neuroimage, 40, 409–414.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale. A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Cimprich, B. (2013). Cognitive function and breast cancer: promise and potential insights from functional brain imaging. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 137, 33–43.
Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2005). Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Adult Version (BRIEF-A). Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Schagen, S. B., van Dam, F. S., Muller, M. J., Boogerd, W., Lindeboom, J., & Bruning, P. F. (1999). Cognitive deficits after postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy for breast carcinoma. Cancer, 85, 640–650.
Schagen, S. B., Muller, M. J., Boogerd, W., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Dam, F. S. (2006). Change in cognitive function after chemotherapy: a prospective longitudinal study in breast cancer patients. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 98, 1742–1745.
Scherling, C., Collins, B., Mackenzie, J., Bielajew, C., & Smith, A. (2011). Pre-chemotherapy differences in visuospatial working memory in breast cancer patients compared to controls: an FMRI study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 122.
Scherling, C., Collins, B., Mackenzie, J., Bielajew, C., & Smith, A. (2012). Prechemotherapy differences in response inhibition in breast cancer patients compared to controls: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, 543–560.
Schmand, B., Lindeboom, J., & van Harskamp, F. (1992). De Nederlandse Leestest voor Volwassenen. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Schöning, S., Engelien, A., Kugel, H., Schafer, S., Schiffbauer, H., Zwitserlood, P., et al. (2007). Functional anatomy of visuo-spatial working memory during mental rotation is influenced by sex, menstrual cycle, and sex steroid hormones. Neuropsychologia, 45, 3203–3214.
Seidenberg, M., Haltiner, A., Taylor, M. A., Hermann, B. B., & Wyler, A. (1994). Development and validation of a Multiple Ability Self-Report Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16, 93–104.
Silverman, D. H., Dy, C. J., Castellon, S. A., Lai, J., Pio, B. S., Abraham, L., et al. (2007). Altered frontocortical, cerebellar, and basal ganglia activity in adjuvant-treated breast cancer survivors 5–10 years after chemotherapy. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 103, 303–311.
Smith, S. M., Jenkinson, M., Woolrich, M. W., Beckmann, C. F., Behrens, T. E., Johansen-Berg, H., et al. (2004). Advances in functional and structural MR image analysis and implementation as FSL. Neuroimage, 23, S208–S219.
Smith, S. M., Miller, K. L., Salimi-Khorshidi, G., Webster, M., Beckmann, C. F., Nichols, T. E., et al. (2011). Network modelling methods for FMRI. Neuroimage, 54(2), 875–891.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Troyer, A. K., & Rich, J. B. (2002). Psychometric properties of a new metamemory questionnaire for older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 19–27.
Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., Landeau, B., Papathanassiou, D., Crivello, F., Etard, O., Delcroix, N., et al. (2002). Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain. Neuroimage, 15, 273–289.
Unverzagt, F. W., Monahan, P. O., Moser, L. R., Zhao, Q., Carpenter, J. S., Sledge, G. W., Jr., et al. (2007). The Indiana University telephone-based assessment of neuropsychological status: a new method for large scale neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 799–806.
Von Ah, D., Harvison, K. W., Monahan, P. O., Moser, L. R., Zhao, Q., Carpenter, J. S., et al. (2009). Cognitive function in breast cancer survivors compared to healthy age- and education-matched women. Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 661–674.
Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler Test of Adult Reading: WTAR. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale (4th ed.). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Wefel, J. S., & Schagen, S. B. (2012). Chemotherapy-related cognitive dysfunction. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 12, 267–275.
Wefel, J. S., Saleeba, A. K., Buzdar, A. U., & Meyers, C. A. (2010). Acute and late onset cognitive dysfunction associated with chemotherapy in women with breast cancer. Cancer, 116, 3348–3356.
Wefel, J. S., Vardy, J., Ahles, T., & Schagen, S. B. (2011). International cognition and cancer task force recommendations to harmonise studies of cognitive function in patients with cancer. Lancet Oncology, 12, 703–708.
Weinberger, D. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self−reported adjustment: A typological perspective. Journal of Personality, 58, 381–417.
White, T. (2003). Neuropsychological assessment battery. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Ruiter, M.B., Schagen, S.B. Functional MRI studies in non-CNS cancers. Brain Imaging and Behavior 7, 388–408 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-013-9249-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-013-9249-9