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The Prevalence of Pathological Gambling Among College Students: A Meta-analytic Synthesis, 2005–2013

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Abstract

The problem of gambling addiction can be especially noteworthy among college and university students, many of whom have the resources, proximity, free time, and desire to become involved in the myriad options of gambling now available. Although limited attention has been paid specifically to college student gambling in the body of literature, there have been two published meta-analyses estimating the prevalence of probable pathological gambling among college students. This present study aims to be the third, presenting an up-to-date proportion of those students exhibiting gambling pathology, and is the first to include international studies from outside the United States and Canada. The purpose of this study was to use the most up-to-date meta-analytical procedures to synthesize the rates of probable pathological gambling for college and university students worldwide. A thorough literature review and coding procedure resulted in 19 independent data estimates retrieved from 18 studies conducted between 2005 and 2013. To synthesize the studies, a random effects model for meta-analysis was applied. The estimated proportion of probable pathological gamblers among the over 13,000 college students surveyed was computed at 10.23 %, considerably higher than either of the two previously published meta-analyses, and more than double the rate reported in the first meta-analysis of this type published in 1999. Implications and recommendations for future practice in dealing with college students and gambling addiction are outlined and described for both administrators and mental health professionals.

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Studies marked with an asterisk (*) were included in the meta-analysis.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, Graduate School of Education, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA

    Donald E. Nowak & Ariel M. Aloe

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  1. Donald E. Nowak
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  2. Ariel M. Aloe
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Correspondence to Donald E. Nowak.

Appendices

Appendix 1

DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria for Pathological Gambling (312.31)

Diagnostic Criteria:

Persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior as indicated by at least five of the following:

  1. 1.

    is preoccupied with gambling (e.g., preoccupied with reliving past gambling experiences, handicapping or planning the next venture, or thinking of ways to get money with which to gamble)

  2. 2.

    needs to gamble with increasing amounts of money in order to achieve the desired excitement

  3. 3.

    has repeated unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop gambling

  4. 4.

    is restless or irritable when attempting to cut down or stop gambling

  5. 5.

    gambles as a way of escaping from problems or of relieving a dysphoric mood (e.g., feelings of helplessness, guilt, anxiety, depression)

  6. 6.

    after losing money gambling, often returns another day in order to get even (“chasing” one’s losses)

  7. 7.

    lies to family members, therapist, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with gambling

  8. 8.

    has committed illegal acts, such as forgery, fraud theft, or embezzlement, in order to finance gambling

  9. 9.

    has jeopardized or lost a significant relationship, job, or educational career opportunity because of gambling

  10. 10.

    relies on others to provide money to relieve a desperate financial situation caused by gambling

Differential diagnosis

Distinct from

  • Social and professional gambling

  • Gambling in the context of a manic episode

  • Problems with gambling in antisocial personality disorder

ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for Pathological Gambling (F63.0)

The disorder consists of frequent, repeated episodes of gambling that dominate the patient’s life to the detriment of social, occupational, material, and family values and commitments.

Diagnostic Criteria:

  1. a.

    Repeated (two or more) episodes of gambling over a period of at least 1 year.

  2. b.

    These episodes do not have a profitable outcome for the person, but are continued despite personal distress and interference with personal functioning in daily living.

  3. c.

    The person describes an intense urge to gamble which is difficult to control, and reports that he or she is unable to stop gambling by an effort of will.

  4. d.

    The person is preoccupied with thoughts or mental images of the act of gambling or the circumstances surrounding the act.

Exclusions:

  • Excessive gambling by manic patients (F30)

  • Gambling and betting not otherwise specified (Z72.6)

  • Gambling in dissocial personality disorder (F60.2)

Appendix 2

College Gambling Resources

  1. 1.

    BetCheck: www.responsiblegambling.org/betcheck/

    1. (a)

      Online tool that allows gamblers to assess their risk by answering their questions

  1. 2.

    Self Help Handbook for Problem Gambling: www.problemgamblingvictoria.ca/handbook/handbook_toc.shtm

    1. (a)

      This book is for adult gamblers who would like to address their problem gambling individually.

  1. 3.

    Gambling Decisions: www.gamingresearch.blogspot.com/2006/12/gambling-decisionsprogram-news.html

    1. (a)

      Six-week program to help individuals abstain or control gambling

  1. 4.

    YMCA Youth Gambling Project: www.peterboroughymca.org/programs/ygp.htm

    1. (a)

      Gambling program for youth 8–24

  2. 5.

    Association of Problem Gambling Services Administrators: www.camh.net/egambling/pdf/jgi_15_christensen.pdf

    1. (a)

      A group that initiates collaboration among states for problem gambling services

  1. 6.

    National Council on Problem Gambling: www.ncpgambling.org

    1. (a)

      National organization that provides information on problem and pathological gambling including clinician gambling certification

  1. 7.

    Responsible Gaming Council: www.responsiblegambling.org/en/index.cfm

    1. (a)

      Website of a non-profit organization that address problem gambling preventions

  1. 8.

    Gambler’s Anonymous: www.gamblersanonymous.org

    1. (a)

      Organizational website that provides lists of meetings and resources for those seeking assistance for pathological gambling.

  1. 9.

    Don’t Bet on It: www.dontbetonit.org

    1. (a)

      Interactive resource for college athletes, developed by NCAA

  1. 10.

    Campus Blues: www.campusblues.com/gambling.asp

    1. (a)

      This site provides information on gambling on American campuses

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Nowak, D.E., Aloe, A.M. The Prevalence of Pathological Gambling Among College Students: A Meta-analytic Synthesis, 2005–2013. J Gambl Stud 30, 819–843 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-013-9399-0

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