Abstract
Prolonged consumption of rice containing elevated cadmium (Cd) levels is a significant health issue particularly in subsistence communities that are dependent on rice produced on-farm. This situation is further exacerbated in areas of known non-ferrous mineralization adjacent to rice-based agricultural systems where the opportunity for contamination of rice and its eventual entry into the food chain is high. In the current study, an assessment of the degree of soil Cd and Zn contamination and associated rice grain Cd contamination downstream of an actively mined zone of Zn mineralization in western Thailand was undertaken. Total soil Cd and Zn concentrations in the rice-based agricultural system investigated ranged from 0.5 to 284 mg kg−1 and 100 to 8036 mg kg−1, respectively. Further, the results indicate that the contamination is associated with suspended sediment transported to fields via the irrigation supply. Consequently, the spatial distribution of Cd and Zn is directly related to a field’s proximity to primary outlets from in-field irrigation channels and inter-field irrigation flows with 60–100% of the Cd and Zn loading associated with the first three fields in irrigation sequence. Rice grain Cd concentrations in the 524 fields sampled, ranged from 0.05 to 7.7 mg kg−1. Over 90% of the rice grain samples collected contained Cd at concentrations exceeding the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (CCFAC) draft Maximum Permissible Level for rice grain of 0.2 mg Cd kg−1. In addition, as a function of demographic group, estimated Weekly Intake (WI) values ranged from 20 to 82 μg Cd per kg Body. This poses a significant public health risk to local communities. The results of this study suggest that an irrigation sequence-based field classification technique in combination with strategic soil and rice grain sampling and the estimation of WI values via rice intake alone may be a useful decision support tool to rapidly evaluate potential public health risks in irrigated rice-based agricultural systems receiving Cd contaminated irrigation water. In addition, the proposed technique will facilitate the cost effective strategic targeting of detailed epidemiological studies thus focusing resources to specific ‘high risk’ areas.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
BJ Alloway (1997) Heavy Metals in Soils EditionNumber2 Blackie Academic and Professional London 367
EL Baker SuffixJr. GG Hayes PJ Landrigan JL Handke RT Leger WJ Housworth JM Harrington (1977) ArticleTitleA nationwide survey of heavy metal absorption in children living near primary copper, lead, and zinc smelters Am J Epidemiol 106 261–273
M Berglund A Akesson B Nermell M Vahter (1994) ArticleTitleIntestinal absorption of dietary cadmium in women depends on body iron stores and fiber intake Environ Health Perspect 102 1058–1066
MM Brzóska J Moniuszko-Jakoniuk (1997) ArticleTitleThe influence of calcium content in diet on the accumulation and toxicology of cadmium in the organism Arch Toxicol 72 63–73 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002040050470
S Cai Z Hu X Zhong X Ye H Xu Y Liu J Rongi W Zhang F Zhang (1990) ArticleTitleCadmium exposure and health effects among residents in an irrigation area with ore dressing wastewater Sci Total Environ 90 67–73 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0048-9697(90)90186-X
Chaney RL, Ryan JA, Li YM, Welch RM, Reeves PG, Brown SL, Green CE. 1996 Phyto-availability and bio-availability in risk assessment for cadmium in agricultural environments. In: Sources of Cadmium in the Environment. OECD: Paris, France. pp. 49–78
Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2002 Report of the 34th Session of the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 11–15 March 2002
European Economic Commission. 1986 Council Directive 86/278/EEC on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, 12 June 1986
U Ewers A Brockhous R Dolgner I Freier E Jermann A Bernard R Stiller-Winkler N Manojlovic (1985) ArticleTitleEnvironmental exposure to cadmium and renal function in elderly women living in cadmium-polluted areas of the Federal Republic of Germany Int Arch Occup Environ Health 55 217–239 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00383755
PR Flanagan JS McLellan J Haist G MJ Cherian Chamberlain LS Valberg (1978) ArticleTitleIncreased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency Gastroenterology 74 841–846
MRS Fox RM Jacobs AOL Jones BE Fry SuffixJr. (1979) ArticleTitleEffects of nutritional factors on metabolism of dietary cadmium at levels similar to those of man Environ Health Perspect 28 107–114
L Hallberg E Bjorn-Rasmussen L Rossander R Suwanik (1977) ArticleTitleIron absorption from Southeast Asian diets. II. Role of various factors that might explain low absorption Am J Clin Nutr 30 539–548
Y Hochi T Kido K Nogawa H Kito ZA Shaikh (1995) ArticleTitleDose-response relationship between total cadmium intake and prevalence of renal dysfunction using general linear models J Appl Toxicol 15 109–116
K. Iimura (1981) Chemical forms and behaviour of heavy metals in soils K. Kitagishi I. Yamane (Eds) Heavy metal pollution in soils of Japan Japan Scientific Societies Press Tokyo 23–55
M Ikeda T Ezaki T Tsukahara J Moriguchi K Furuki Y Fukai H Ukai S Okamoto H Sakurai (2003) ArticleTitleThreshold levels of urinary cadmium in relation to increases in urinary β2-microglobulin among general Japanese populations Toxicol Lett 137 135–141 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00389-2
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives: 2003 Report of the 61st Session of JECFA, Rome, Italy, 10–19 June 2003
T Kido R Honda I Tsuritani H Yamaya M Ishizaki Y Yamada K Nogawa (1988) ArticleTitleProgress of renal dysfunction in inhabitants environmentally exposed to cadmium Arch Environ Health 43 213–217 Occurrence Handle10.1080/00039896.1988.9934935
T Kido K Nogawa R Honda I Tsuritani M Ishizaki Y Yamada H Nakagawa (1990) ArticleTitleThe association between renal dysfunction and osteopenia in environmental cadmium-exposed subjects Environ Res 51 71–82 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0013-9351(05)80183-5
Klesta E.J., Jr., Bartz J.K. 1996, Quality assurance and quality control. In: D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. Madison, WI: SSSA and ASA, 19–49
SI Koo CS Fullmer RH Wasserman (1978) ArticleTitleIntestinal absorption and retention of 109Cd: effects of cholecalciferol, calcium status and other variables J Nutr 108 1812–1822
SP McGrath CH Cunliffe (1985) ArticleTitleA simplified method for the extraction of the metals Fe, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cd, Pb, Cr, Co and Mn from soils and sewage sludges J Sci Food Agric 36 794–798
J.M. McKenzie-Parnell G. Eynon (1987) Effect on New Zealand adults consuming large amounts of cadmium in oysters D.D. Hemphill (Eds) Trace Substances in Environmental Health-XXI University of Missouri Press Columbia, MO 420–430
Ministry of Interior. 2002 Department of Provincial Adminstration, sub district Population and basic statistics Tak Province, Thailand (in Thai)
Ministry of Natural Resources: 2004 Report of the investigation to estimate Cd contamination associated with the Huai Mae Tao, Mae sot, Tak. (in Thai)
Motomura S, Seirayosakol A, Piyapongse P, Cholitkul W. 1979 Field observations and laboratory analysis of paddy soils in Thailand. TARC Technical Bulletin No. 45, Shobi Printing Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
K Nogawa T Kido (1993) ArticleTitleBiological monitoring of cadmium exposure in Itai-itai disease epidemiology Int Arch Occup Environ Health 63 43–46 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00381306
K Nogawa Y Yamada R Honda M Ishizaki I Tsuritani S Kawano T Kato (1983) ArticleTitleThe relationship between Itai-itai disease among inhabitants of the Jinzu River basin and cadmium in rice Toxicol Lett 17 263–266 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0378-4274(83)90236-9
Nutrition Plan Sub-committee of the National Nutrition Committee. 1998 National Food and Nutrition Plan of the 8th National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997–2001)
B Pedersen BO Eggum (1983) ArticleTitleThe influence of milling on the nutritive value of flour from cereal grains: 4. Rive Plant Foods Human Nutr 33 267–278 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01094752
P Pongsakul S Attajarusit (1999) ArticleTitleAssessment of heavy metals in soils Thai J Soils Fertil 21 71–82
PG Reeves RL Chaney (2001) ArticleTitleMineral nutrient status of female rats affects the absorption and organ distribution of cadmium from sunflower kernels (Helianthus annuus L.) Environ Res 85 215–225 Occurrence Handle10.1006/enrs.2000.4236
PG Reeves RA Vanderpool (1998) ArticleTitleOrgan content and fecal excretion of cadmium in male and female rats consuming variable amounts of naturally occurring cadmium in confectionery sunflower kernels (Helianthus annuus L.) J Nutr Biochem 9 636–644 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0955-2863(98)00067-9
M Shimada T Piscator H Iwata Nishino (1977) ArticleTitleUrine analysis for detection of cadmium-induced renal changes, with special reference to β2-microglobulin Environ Res 13 407–424 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0013-9351(77)90021-4
Simmons RW & Pongsakul P. 2002 Towards the development of an irrigation infrastructure based sampling strategy to rapidly evaluate the spatial distribution of Cd in rice based agricultural systems. Proceedings of the 17th World Congress of Soil Science 14–21 August 2002, Bangkok Thailand
RW Simmons P Pongsakul RL Chaney D Saiyasitpanich S Klinphoklap W Nobuntou (2003) ArticleTitleThe relative exclusion of zinc and iron from rice grain in relation to rice grain cadmium as compared to soybean: Implications for human health Plant Soil 257 163–170 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1026242811667
CD Strehlow D Barlthrop (1988) ArticleTitleThe Shipham Report–An investigation into cadmium concentration and its implications for human health: 6. Health studies Sci Total Environ 75 101–133 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0048-9697(88)90161-1
Thai Ministry of Public Health.: 1995 Fourth National Food and Nutrition Status Survey Report Department of Health, Thai Ministry of Public Health
C Tohyama ZA Shaikh K Nogawa E Kobayashi R Honda (1982) ArticleTitleUrinary metallothionein as a new index of renal dysfunction in “Itai-itai” disease patients and other Japanese women environmentally exposed to cadmium Arch Toxicol 50 159–166 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00373398
I Tsuritani R Honda M Ishizaki Y Yamada T Kido K Nogawa (1992) ArticleTitleImpairment of vitamin D metabolism due to environmental cadmium exposure, and possible relevance to sex-related differences in vulnerability to bone damage Jpn J Toxicol Environ Health 37 519–533 Occurrence Handle10.1080/15287399209531690
T. Yoshikawa S. Kusaka T. Zikihara T. Yoshida (1981) Accumulation of heavy metals in rice grains K. Kitagishi I. Yamane (Eds) Heavy metal pollution in soils of Japan Japan Scientific Societies Press Tokyo 95–104
JM Zachara SC Smith CT Resch CE Cowan (1992) ArticleTitleCadmium sorption on silicates and oxides Soil Sci Soc Am J 56 1074–1084 Occurrence Handle10.2136/sssaj1992.03615995005600040012x
Z-W Zhang C-S Moon T Watanabe S Shimbo M Ilkeba (1997) ArticleTitleContents of pollutant and nutrient elements in rice and wheat grown on the neighbouring fields Biol Trace Element Res 58 39–50
BA Zarcinas P Pongsakul MJ McLaughlin G Cozens (2003) ArticleTitleHeavy metals in soils and crops in South East Asia 2 Thailand Environ Geochem Health 162–202 1–13
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Simmons, R., Pongsakul, P., Saiyasitpanich, D. et al. Elevated Levels of Cadmium and Zinc in Paddy Soils and Elevated Levels of Cadmium in Rice Grain Downstream of a Zinc Mineralized Area in Thailand: Implications for Public Health. Environ Geochem Health 27, 501–511 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-005-7857-z
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-005-7857-z