Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Set shifting and working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

  • Biological Child and Adolescent Psychiatry - Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Neural Transmission Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Compared to the high number of studies that investigated executive functions (EF) in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a little is known about the EF performance of adults with ADHD. This study compared 37 adults with ADHD (ADHDtotal) and 32 control participants who were equivalent in age, intelligence quotient (IQ), sex, and years of education, in two domains of EF—set shifting and working memory. Additionally, the ADHDtotal group was subdivided into two subgroups: ADHD patients without comorbidity (ADHD−, n = 19) and patients with at least one comorbid disorder (ADHD+, n = 18). Participants fulfilled two measures for set shifting (i.e., the trail making test, TMT and a computerized card sorting test, CKV) and one measure for working memory (i.e., digit span test, DS). Compared to the control group the ADHDtotal group displayed deficits in set shifting and working memory. The differences between the groups were of medium-to-large effect size (TMT: d = 0.48; DS: d = 0.51; CKV: d = 0.74). The subgroup comparison of the ADHD+ group and the ADHD− group revealed a poorer performance in general information processing speed for the ADHD+ group. With regard to set shifting and working memory, no significant differences could be found between the two subgroups. These results suggest that the deficits of the ADHDtotal group are attributable to ADHD rather than to comorbidity. An influence of comorbidity, however, could not be completely ruled out as there was a trend of a poorer performance in the ADHD+ group on some of the outcome measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Willis C, Adams AM (2004) A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children. J Exp Child Psychol 87(2):85–106. doi:S0022096503001619

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • APA (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn. APA, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 121(1):65–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K (2002) The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 111(2):279–289

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baudic S, Tzortzis C, Barba GD, Traykov L (2004) Executive deficits in elderly patients with major unipolar depression. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 17(4):195–201. doi:10.1177/0891988704269823

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1215–1220. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.020

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonilha L, Molnar C, Horner MD, Anderson B, Forster L, George MS, Nahas Z (2008) Neurocognitive deficits and prefrontal cortical atrophy in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 101(1–3):142–151. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.11.023

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boonstra AM, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA, Buitelaar JK (2005) Executive functioning in adult ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Med 35(8):1097–1108. doi:10.1017/S003329170500499X

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki KC, Randall KD, Bohlin G, Kerns KA (2008) Working memory in school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type: are deficits modality specific and are they independent of impaired inhibitory control? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 30(7):1–11. doi:10.1080/13803390701754720

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown TE (2008) ADD/ADHD and impaired executive function in clinical practice. Curr Psychiatry Rep 10(5):407–411. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Tannock R (2002) Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nat Rev Neurosci 3(8):617–628. doi:10.1038/nrn896

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark C, Prior M, Kinsella GJ (2000) Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological study using the six elements test and Hayling sentence completion test. J Abnorm Child Psychol 28(5):403–414. doi:10.1023/A:1005176320912

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1988) Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners CK, Erhardt D, Sparrow E (1999) Conners’ adult ADHD rating scales (CAARS). Multi-Health Systems, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Corbett BA, Constantine LJ, Hendren R, Rocke D, Ozonoff S (2009) Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development. Psychiatry Res 166(2–3):210–222. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.02.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Croft RJ, Mackay AJ, Mills ATD, Gruzelier JGH (2001) The relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment. Psychopharmacology 153(3):373–379. doi:10.1007/s002130000591

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cuffe SP, Moore CG, McKeown RE (2005) Prevalence and correlates of ADHD symptoms in the national health interview survey. J Atten Disord 9(2):392–401. doi:10.1177/1087054705280413

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drühe-Wienholt CM, Wienholt W (2004) Computergestütztes Kartensortierverfahren. Manual Swets Test Services

  • Engelhardt PE, Nigg JT, Carr LA, Ferreira F (2008) Cognitive inhibition and working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 117(3):591–605. doi:10.1037/a0012593

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein JN, Johnson DE, Varia IM, Conners CK (2001) Neuropsychological assessment of response inhibition in adults with ADHD. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 23(3):362–371. doi:10.1076/jcen.23.3.362.1186

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fayyad J, De Graaf R, Kessler R, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, Demyttenaere K, De Girolamo G, Haro JM, Karam EG, Lara C, Lepine JP, Ormel J, Posada-Villa J, Zaslavsky AM, Jin R (2007) Cross-national prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br J Psychiatry 190:402–409. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034389

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher P, Massey AE, Young AH, McAllister-Williams RH (2003) Effects of acute tryptophan depletion on executive function in healthy male volunteers. BMC Psychiatry 3:10. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-3-10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gansler DA, Fucetola R, Krengel M, Stetson S, Zimering R, Makary C (1998) Are there cognitive subtypes in adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder? J Nerv Ment Dis 186(12):776–781

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole SE, Pickering SJ (2000) Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age. Br J Educ Psychol 70(Pt 2):177–194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant DA, Berg D (1948) A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. J Exp Psychol 38:404–411

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gropper RJ, Tannock R (2009) A pilot study of working memory and academic achievement in college students with ADHD. J Atten Disord 12(6):574–581. doi:10.1177/1087054708320390

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hervey AS, Epstein JN, Curry JF (2004) Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 18(3):485–503. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.485

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson DE, Epstein JN, Waid LR, Latham PK, Voronin KE, Anton RF (2001) Neuropsychological performance deficits in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 16(6):587–604. doi:10.1093/arclin/16.6.587

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston K, Madden AK, Bramham J, Russell AJ (2010) Response inhibition in adults with autism spectrum disorder compared to attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1113-9

  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, Faraone SV, Greenhill LL, Howes MJ, Secnik K, Spencer T, Ustun TB, Walters EE, Zaslavsky AM (2006) The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 163(4):716–723. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SY, Hwang YH, Lee HW, Suh CK, Kwon SH, Park SP (2007) Cognitive impairment in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. J Clin Neurol 3(2):86–92. doi:10.3988/jcn.2007.3.2.86

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klemm S, Schmidt B, Knappe S, Blanz B (2006) Impaired working speed and executive functions as frontal lobe dysfunctions in young first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 15(7):400–408. doi:10.1007/s00787-006-0547-2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenigs M, Barbey AK, Postle BR, Grafman J (2009) Superior parietal cortex is critical for the manipulation of information in working memory. J Neurosci 29(47):14980–14986. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3706-09.2009

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liepelt I, Wendt A, Schweitzer KJ, Wolf B, Godau J, Gaenslen A, Bruessel T, Berg D (2008) Substantia nigra hyperechogenicity assessed by transcranial sonography is related to neuropsychological impairment in the elderly population. J Neural Transm 115(7):993–999. doi:10.1007/s00702-008-0043-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, La Padula M (1993) Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50(7):565–567

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marazziti D, Catena Dell‘osso M, Conversano C, Consoli G, Vivarelli L, Mungai F, Di Nasso E, Golia F (2008) Executive function abnormalities in pathological gamblers. Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health 4:7. doi:10.1186/1745-0179-4-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marchetta ND, Hurks PP, Krabbendam L, Jolles J (2008) Interference control, working memory, concept shifting, and verbal fluency in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychology 22(1):74–84. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.22.1.74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martel M, Nikolas M, Nigg JT (2007) Executive function in adolescents with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46(11):1437–1444. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31814cf953

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martinussen R, Hayden J, Hogg-Johnson S, Tannock R (2005) A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44(4):377–384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marx I, Hubner T, Herpertz SC, Berger C, Reuter E, Kircher T, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K (2010) Cross-sectional evaluation of cognitive functioning in children, adolescents and young adults with ADHD. J Neural Transm 117(3):403–419. doi:10.1007/s00702-009-0345-3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mick E, Faraone SV, Biederman J (2004) Age-dependent expression of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Psychiatr Clin North Am 27(2):215–224. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2004.01.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake A, Friedman N, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A (2000) The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn Psychol 41(1):49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monsell S (1996) Control of mental processes. In: Bruce V (ed) Unsolved mysteries of the mind: Tutorial essays in cognition. Taylor & Francis, Oxford, pp 93–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller U, Waechter T, Barthel H, Reuter M, von Cramon DY (2000) Striatal [123I]beta-CIT SPECT and prefrontal cognitive functions in Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm 107(3):303–319. doi:10.1007/s007020050025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller BW, Gimbel K, Keller-Pliessnig A, Sartory G, Gastpar M, Davids E (2007) Neuropsychological assessment of adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 257(2):112–119. doi:10.1007/s00406-006-0688-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy P (2002a) Cognitive functioning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord 5(4):203–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy P (2002b) Inhibitory control in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord 6(1):1–4. doi:10.1177/108705470200600101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy KR, Barkley RA, Bush T (2001) Executive functioning and olfactory identification in young adults with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 15(2):211–220. doi:10.1037//0894-4105.15.2.211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oades RD, Christiansen H (2008) Cognitive switching processes in young people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 23(1):21–32. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.09.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ossmann JM, Mulligan NW (2003) Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Psychol 116(1):35–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapeli P, Kivisaari R, Autti T, Kahkonen S, Puuskari V, Jokela O, Kalska H (2006) Cognitive function during early abstinence from opioid dependence: a comparison to age, gender, and verbal intelligence matched controls. BMC Psychiatry 6:9. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-6-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport LJ, Van Voorhis A, Tzelepis A, Friedman SR (2001) Executive functioning in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neuropsychol 15(4):479–491

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan R (1986a) The Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test battery for adults (age 15 and older). Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory, AZ

  • Reitan RM (1986b) Trail Making Test. Manual for administration and scoring. Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory, AZ

  • Roca M, Parr A, Thompson R, Woolgar A, Torralva T, Antoun N, Manes F, Duncan J (2010) Executive function and fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Brain 133(Pt 1):234–247. doi:10.1093/brain/awp269

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romine CB, Lee D, Wolfe ME, Homack S, George C, Riccio CA (2004) Wisconsin card sorting test with children: a meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 19(8):1027–1041. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.12.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rösler M, Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Stieglitz RD (2008) HASE. Homburger ADHS-Skalen für Erwachsene, vol 1. Hogrefe, Homburg

  • Rupp CI, Fleischhacker WW, Drexler A, Hausmann A, Hinterhuber H, Kurz M (2006) Executive function and memory in relation to olfactory deficits in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 30(8):1355–1362. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00162.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson KW, Neylan TC, Metzler TJ, Lenoci M, Rothlind J, Henn-Haase C, Choucroun G, Weiner MW, Marmar CR (2006) Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol abuse. Neuropsychology 20(6):716–726. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.716

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoechlin C, Engel RR (2005) Neuropsychological performance in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis of empirical data. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 20(6):727–744. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.04.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schweitzer JB, Hanford RB, Medoff DR (2006) Working memory deficits in adults with ADHD: is there evidence for subtype differences? Behav Brain Funct 2:43. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-2-43

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman LJ, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Weber W, Ouellette C (1997) Toward defining a neuropsychology of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: performance of children and adolescents from a large clinically referred sample. J Consult Clin Psychol 65(1):150–160. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.1.150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simon V, Czobor P, Balint S, Meszaros A, Bitter I (2009) Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 194(3):204–211. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.048827

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith DJ, Muir WJ, Blackwood DH (2006) Neurocognitive impairment in euthymic young adults with bipolar spectrum disorder and recurrent major depressive disorder. Bipolar Disord 8(1):40–46. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00275.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobanski E (2006) Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256(Suppl 1):i26–i31. doi:10.1007/s00406-006-1004-4

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJ (2002) Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD—a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behav Brain Res 130(1–2):29–36. doi:S0166432801004326

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stavro GM, Ettenhofer ML, Nigg JT (2007) Executive functions and adaptive functioning in young adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 13(2):324–334. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070348

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucha L, Tucha O, Laufkotter R, Walitza S, Klein HE, Lange KW (2008) Neuropsychological assessment of attention in adults with different subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Neural Transm 115(2):269–278. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0836-z

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ullsperger M, von Cramon DY (2006) Funktionen frontaler Strukturen. In: Karnath H-O, Thier P (eds) Neuropsychologie, 2nd edn. Springer, pp 479–488

  • von Aster M, Neubauer A, Horn R (2006) Wechsler-Intelligenztest für Erwachsene (WIE). Manual. Übersetzung und Adaption der WAIS-III von David Wechsler. Harcourt Test Services, Frankfurt/M

  • Walker AJ, Shores EA, Trollor JN, Lee T, Sachdev PS (2000) Neuropsychological functioning of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 22(1):115–124. doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200002)22:1;1-8;FT115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler D (1997) Wechsler adult intelligence scale-third edition (WAIS-III). The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX

  • Weiß RH (2006) Grundintelligenztest Skala 2: Revision; CFT 20-R, Manual. Hogrefe, Göttingen

  • Weiss G, Hechtman L, Milroy T, Perlman T (1985) Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: a controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 24(2):211–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh MC, Pennington BF (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: views from developmental psychology. Dev Neuropsychol 4(3):199–230. doi:10.1080/87565648809540405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (1991) Internationale Klassifikation psychischer Störungen: ICD 10. In: Kapitel V (ed) Huber, Bern

  • Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF (2005) Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1336–1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wittchen H-U, Zaudig M, Fydrich T (1997) Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM-IV Achse I und Achse II; Handanweisung. Hogrefe, Göttingen

  • Wodushek TR, Neumann CS (2003) Inhibitory capacity in adults with symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Arch Clin Neuropsychol 18(3):317–330. doi:10.1093/arclin/18.3.317

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Germany

    Helena Rohlf, Viola Jucksch, Ulrike Lehmkuhl & Harriet Salbach-Andrae

  2. Center for Research on Individual Development and Adaptive Education of Children at Risk (IDeA), German Institute for International Educational Research, University of Frankfurt, Mertonstr. 17, 60325, Frankfurt, Germany

    Caterina Gawrilow

  3. Department for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Langenbeckstraße 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany

    Michael Huss

  4. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany

    Jakob Hein

Authors
  1. Helena Rohlf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Viola Jucksch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Caterina Gawrilow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael Huss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jakob Hein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ulrike Lehmkuhl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Harriet Salbach-Andrae
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Helena Rohlf.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rohlf, H., Jucksch, V., Gawrilow, C. et al. Set shifting and working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Neural Transm 119, 95–106 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-011-0660-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-011-0660-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation