Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Musculature of the crus and pes of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): insight into semiplantigrade limb architecture

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Anatomy and Embryology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The limbs of elephants are designed to support the weight of the largest terrestrial animal, and they display unique morphological peculiarities among mammals. In this article we provide a new and detailed anatomical description of the muscles of the lower hindlimb in African elephants (Loxodonta africana), and we place our observations into a comparative anatomical as well as a functional morphological context. At the cranial aspect of the shank (crus) and the foot (pes), the flexors of the tarsal joint and the extensors of the toes form a flat muscular plate covering the skeletal elements. Caudal to the tibia and the fibula the Musculus (M.) soleus is strongly developed, whereas the M. gastrocnemius and the M. flexor digitorum superficialis are thin. Small flexors, adductors, and abductors of the toes are present. The M. tibialis caudalis as well as the Mm. fibularis longus and brevis mainly support the tarsal joint. The design of the muscular structures matches the specific requirements of heavy-weight bearing as well as of proboscidean limb posture and locomotion patterns.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1A, B
Fig. 2
Fig. 3A, B

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander RMcN, Maloiy GMO, Hunter B, Jayes AS, Nturibi J (1979) Mechanical stresses in fast locomotion of buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and elephant (Loxodonta africana). J Zool 189:135–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardeleben K (1890) Über die Hand- und Fuss-Muskeln der Säugetiere, besonders die des Praepollex (Praehallux) und Postminimus. Anat Anz 16/17:435–444

  • Chapple CR, Wood BA (1980) Venous drainage of the hind limb in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis). J Anat 131:157–171

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis DD (1964) The giant panda—a morphological study of evolutionary mechanisms. In: Ross LA, Williams PM, Nash EG (eds) Fieldiana: zoology memoirs, vol. 3. Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago

  • Eales NB (1928) The anatomy of a foetal African elephant, Elephas africanus (Loxodonta africana). Part II. The body muscles. Trans Roy Soc Edinburgh 55:609–642

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer MS (1983) Die Extremitätenmuskulatur der Hyracoidea. Diplomarbeit, Fakultät für Biologie der Universität Tübingen

  • Fischer MS (1986) Die Stellung der Schliefer (Hyracoidea) im phylogenetischen System der Eutheria. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 84:1–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowler ME (2001) An overview of foot conditions in Asian and African elephants. In: Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US (eds) The elephant’s foot. Iowa state University Press, Ames, IA, pp 3–7

  • Frey H (1913) Der Musculus triceps surae in der Primatenreihe. Morphol Jb 47:1–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaesmer E (1910) Die Beugemuskeln am Unterschenkel und Fuß bei den Marsupialia, Insectivora, Edentata, Prosimiae und Simiae. Morphol Jb 41:149–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry RW, Orosz SE (1988) The muscles of the crus of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Anat Histol Embryol 17:370

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Famini D, Lair R, Kram R (2003) Are fast-moving elephants really running? Nature 422:493–494

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, Kester RC, Alexander RMcN (1987) The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature 325:147–149

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • König HE, Macher R, Polsterer-Heindl E, Sora CM, Hinterhofer C, Helmreich M, Böck P (2003) Stoßbrechende Einrichtungen am Zehenendorgan des Pferdes. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift 90:267–273

  • Kriegler W (1961) Zur Myologie des Beckens und der Hinterextremität der Reptilien. Morphol Jb 101:541–625

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis OJ (1962) The phylogeny of the crural and pedal flexor musculature. Proc Zool Soc London 138:77–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis OJ (1963) The monotreme cruro-pedal flexor musculature. J Anat 97: 55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis OJ (1964) The tibialis posterior tendon in the primate foot. J Anat 98:209–218

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mariappa D (1955) The anatomy of a foetal Indian elephant. Part IV. The muscles, nerves and blood vessels of the hind limb and tail. Indian Vet J 32:407–430

    Google Scholar 

  • Mariappa D (1986) Anatomy and histology of the Indian elephant. Indira, Oak Park, Michigan

  • Miall LC, Greenwood F (1878) The anatomy of the Indian elephant. Part I. The muscles of the extremities. J Anat Physiol 12:261–287

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicolier A (2001) Anatomie topographique du membre pelvien de l’ours brun (Ursus arctos). Thèse, Ecole Nationale Veterinaire de Lyon

  • Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria, 4th edn (1994) International Committee on Veterinary Gross Anatomical Nomenclature and World Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Zürich

  • Pavelka R (1971) Die peripheren Leitungsbahnen an der hinteren Extremität bei Elephas maximus. Anat Anz 128:150–169

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft H (1961) Muskeln und Gelenke der Hinterextremität des Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla Savage et Wyman, 1847). Morphol Jb 101:430–540

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay EC, Henry RW (2001) Anatomy of the elephant foot. In: Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US (eds) The elephant’s foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, pp 9–12

  • Raven HC (1936) Comparative anatomy of the sole of the foot. Am Mus Nov 871:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribbing L (1938) Die Muskeln und Nerven der Extremitäten. In: Bolk L, Göppert E, Kallius E, Lubosch W (eds) Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbeltiere, fünfter Band. Urban und Schwarzenberg, Berlin, pp 543–682

  • Ruge G (1878) Untersuchung über die Extensorengruppe am Unterschenkel und Fusse der Säugethiere. Morphol Jb 4:592–643

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller O (1992) Illustrated veterinary anatomical nomenclature. Enke, Stuttgart

  • Schwerda D (2003) Analyse kinematischer Parameter der Lokomotion von Loxodonta africana (Proboscidea: Elephantidae). Diplomarbeit, Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena

  • Seiferle E, Frewein S (1992) Aktiver Bewegungsapparat, Muskelsystem, Myologia. In: Nickel R, Schummer A, Seiferle E, Frewein J, Wille KH, Wilkens H (eds) Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Haustiere, Band 1, 6. Auflage. Paul Parey, Berlin, pp 273–585

  • Shindo T, Mori M (1956) Musculature of the Indian elephant. Part II. Musculature of the hindlimb. Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 28:114–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts MMS, Bezuidenhout AJ (1994) Osteology of the pelvic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J Vet Res 61:55–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (1998) Terminologia Anatomica. Thieme, Stuttgart

  • Tillmann B (2003) Untere Extremität. In: Leonhardt H, Tillmann B, Töndury G, Zilles K (eds) Anatomie des Menschen, Band I, Bewegungsapparat, 3. Auflage. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 445–651

  • Weissengruber GE, Forstenpointner G, Gangl D (2003) Gut zu Fuß—funktionell-anatomische Aspekte des bipeden Laufens beim Afrikanischen Strauß (Struthio camelus Linné, 1758). Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift 90:67–78

  • Windle BCA, Parsons FG (1898) The myology of the terrestrial carnivora—part II. Proc Zool Soc London:152–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Windle BCA, Parsons FG (1903) On the muscles of the ungulata. Part II—Muscles of the hind-limb and trunk. Proc Zool Soc London:261–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang F, Alkalaeva EZ, Perelman PL, Pardini AT, Harrison WR, O’Brien PCM, Fu B, Graphodatsky MA, Ferguson-Smith MA, Robinson TJ (2003) Reciprocal chromosome painting among human, aardvark, and elephant (superorder Afrotheria) reveals the likely eutherian ancestral caryotype. PNAS 100:1062–1066

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerkandl E (1911) Über die Extremitätenarterien des afrikanischen Elefanten. Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, 120 (III):315–329

Download references

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Mag. med. vet. Eva Polsterer (Vienna, Austria) for excellent artwork, and Prof. Herman B. Groenewald, Prof. John T. Soley, and Mr. Leon de Villiers (Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa) for outstanding scientific cooperation and great hospitality. We are grateful to Mr. Leo Habeler and Mr. Helmut Dier (Department of Pathobiology, Anatomy, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria) for skilled technical assistance. A research grant from the Gesellschaft der Freunde der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien aided this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pathobiology, Anatomy, Unit on Comparative Morphology and Archaeozoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 , Vienna, Austria

    G. E. Weissengruber & G. Forstenpointner

Authors
  1. G. E. Weissengruber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. G. Forstenpointner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to G. E. Weissengruber.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Weissengruber, G.E., Forstenpointner, G. Musculature of the crus and pes of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): insight into semiplantigrade limb architecture. Anat Embryol 208, 451–461 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-004-0406-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-004-0406-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation