Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Review of Human Hair Follicle Biology: Dynamics of Niches and Stem Cell Regulation for Possible Therapeutic Hair Stimulation for Plastic Surgeons

  • Original Article
  • Special Topics
  • Published:
Aesthetic Plastic Surgery Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Plastic surgeons are frequently asked to manage male- and female-pattern hair loss in their practice. This article discusses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and current management of androgenetic alopecia and emphasizes more recent knowledge of stem cell niches in hair follicles that drive hair cycling, alopecia, and its treatment. The many treatment programs available for hair loss include newer strategies that involve the usage of growth factors, platelet-rich plasma, and fat to stimulate follicle growth. Future research may clarify novel biomolecular mechanisms that target specific cells that promote hair regeneration.

Level of Evidence V This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Schofield R (1978) The relationship between the spleen colony-forming cell and the haemopoietic stem cell. Blood Cells 4:7–25

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Morrison SJ, Kimble J (2006) Asymmetric and symmetric stem cell divisions in development and cancer. Nature 441:1068–1074

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Fuchs E (2009) The tortoise and the hair: slow cycling cells in the stem cell race. Cell 137:811–819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Blanpain C, Fuchs E (2006) Epidermal stem cells of the skin. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 22:339–373

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Voog J, Jones D (2010) Stem cells and the niche: a dynamic duo. Cell Stem Cell 6:103–115

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Paus R, Muller-Rover S, Van Der Veen C et al (1999) A comprehensive guide for the recognition and classification of distinct stages of hair follicle morphogenesis. J Invest Dermatol 113:523–532

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Paus R, Cotsarelis G (1999) The biology of hair follicles. N Engl J Med 341:491–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Nowak JA, Polak L, Pasolli HA et al (2008) Hair follicle stem cells are specified and function in early skin morphogenesis. Cell Stem Cell 3:33–43

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Schmidt-Ullrich R, Paus R (2005) Molecular principles of hair follicle induction and morphogenesis. BioEssays 27:247–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Cotsarelis G (2006) Epithelial stem cells: folliculocentric view. J Invest Dermatol 126:1459–1468

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Millar SE (2002) Molecular mechanisms regulating hair follicle development. J Invest Dermatol 118:216–225

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hardy MH (1992) The secret lift of the hair follicle. Trends Genet 8:55–61

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Reddy S, Andl T, Bagasra A et al (2001) Characterization of Wnt gene expression in developing and postnatal hair follicles and identification of Wnt5a as a target of Sonic hedgehog in hair follicle morphogenesis. Mech Dev 107:69–82

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Andl T, Reddy ST, Gaddapara T et al (2002) Wnt signals are required for the initiation hair follicle development. Dev Cell 2:643–653

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Schmidt-Ullrich R, Aebischer T et al (2001) Requirement of NF-κβ/Rel for the development of hair follicles and other epidermal appendices. Development 128:3843–3853

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Jamora C, DasGupta R, Kocieniewski P et al (2003) Links between signal transduction, transcription and adhesion in epithelial bud development. Nature 422:317–322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Mill P, Mo R, Fu H et al (2003) Sonic hedgehog-dependent activation of Gli2 is essential for embryonic hair follicle development. Genes Dev 17:282–294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Tumbar T, Guasch G, Greco V et al (2004) Defining the epithelial stem cell niche in skin. Science 303:359–363

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Yang C-C, Cotsarelis G (2010) Review of hair follicle dermal cells. J Dermatol Sci 57(1):1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. McMahon AP, Ingham PW, Tabinj CJ (2003) Developmental roles ad clinical significance of hedgehog signaling. Curr Top Dev Biol 53:1–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Vidal VP, Chaboissier MC, Lutzkendorf S et al (2005) Sox9 is essential for outer root sheath differentiation and the formation of the hair stem cell compartment. Curr Biol 15:1340–1351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Rhee H, Polak L, Fuchs E (2006) Lhx2 maintains stem cell character in hair follicles. Science 312:1946–1949

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Cotsarelis G, Sun TT, Lavcker RM (1990) Label-retaining cells reside in the bulge area of the pilosebaceous unit: implications for follicular stem cells, hair cycle, and skin carcinogenesis. Cell 61:1329–1337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Zhang YV, Cheong J, Ciapurin N et al (2009) Distinct self-renewal and differentiation phases in the niche of infrequently dividing hair follicle stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 5:267–278

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Rendl M, Lewis L, Fuchs E (2005) Molecular dissection of mesenchymal–epithelial interactions in the hair follicle. PLoS Biol 3(11):e331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Blanpain C, Lowry WE, Geoghegan A et al (2004) Self-renewal, multipotency, and the existence of two cell populations within an epithelial stem cell niche. Cell 118:635–648

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Liu Y, Lyle S, Yang Z et al (2003) Keratin 15 promoter targets putative epithelial stem cells in the hair follicle bulge. J Invest Dermatol 121:963–968

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Ellis T, Gambardella L, Horcher M et al (2001) The transcriptional repressor CDP (Cultl1) is essential for epithelial cell differentiation of the lung and the hair follicle. Genes Dev 15:2307–2319

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Kaufman CK, Zhou P, Pasolli HA et al (2003) GATA-3: an unexpected regulator of cell lineage determination in skin. Genes Dev 17:2108–2122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Peters EM, Botchkarev VA, Muller-Rover S et al (2002) Developmental timing of hair follicle and dorsal skin innervation in mice. J Comp Neurol. 448:28–52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Philpott MP, Paus R (1998) Principles of hair follicle morphogenesis. In: Chuong CM (ed) Molecular basis of epithelial appendage morphogensis. R.G. Landes, Austin, pp 75–76

    Google Scholar 

  32. Petiot A, Conti FJ, Grose R et al (2003) A crucial role for Fgfr2-III signalling in epidermal development and hair follicle patterning. Development 130:5493–5501

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Botchkarev VA, Botchkareva NV, Roth W et al (1999) Noggin is a mesenchymally derived stimulator of hair-follicle induction. Nat Cell Biol 1:158–164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Chuong CM, Cotsarelis G, Stenn K et al (2007) Defining hair follicles in the age of stem cell bioengineering. J Invest Dermatol 127:2098–2100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. St-Jacques B, Dassule HR, Karavanova I et al (1998) Sonic hedgehog signaling is essential for hair development. Curr Biol 8:1058–1068

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Karisson L, Bondjers C, Betsholtz C (1999) Roles for PDGF-A and sonic hedgehog in development of mesenchymal components of the hair follicle. Development 126:2611–2621

    Google Scholar 

  37. Ito M, Sato Y (1990) Dynamic ultrastructural changes of the connective tissue sheath of human hair follicles during hair cycle. Arch Dermatol Res 282:434–441

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Tobin DJ, Gunin A, Magerl M et al (2003) Plasticity and cytokinetic dynamics of the hair follicle mesenchyme: implications for hair growth control. J Invest Dermal 120:895–904

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. McElwee KJ, Kissling S, Wenzel E et al (2003) Cultured peribulbar dermal sheath cells can induce hair follicle development and contribute to the dermal sheath and dermal papilla. J Invest Dermatol 121:1267–1275

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Feutz AC, Barrandon Y, Monard D (2008) Control of thrombin signaling through P13K is a mechanism underlying plasticity between hair follicle dermal sheath and papilla cells. J Cell Sci 121:1435–1443

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Greco V, Chen T, Rendl M et al (2009) A two-step mechanism for stem cell activation during hair regeneration. Cell Stem Cell 4(2):155–169

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Ito M, Kizawa K, Hamada K et al (2004) Hair follicle stem cells in the lower bulge form the secondary germ, a biochemically distinct but functionally equivalent progenitor cell population, at the termination of catagen. Differentiation 72(9–10):548–557

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Zhang Y, Andl T, Yang S et al (2008) Activation of β-catenin signaling programs embryonic epidermis to hair follicle fate. Development 135:2161–2172

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Horsley V, Aliprantis AO, Polak L et al (2008) NFAYcl balances quiescence and proliferation of skin stem cells. Cell 132:299–310

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Kobielak K, Pasolli HA, Alonso L et al (2007) Defining BMP functions in the hair follicle by conditional ablation of BMP receptor IA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:10063

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Lowry WE, Blanpain C, Nowak JA et al (2005) Defining the impact of beta-catenin/Tef transactivation on epithelial stem cells. Genes Dev 19:1596–1611

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Waghmare SK, Bansal R, Lee J et al (2008) Quantitative proliferation dynamics and random chromosome segregation of hair follicle stem cells. EMBO J 27:1309–1320

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Panteleyev AA, Jahoda CA, Christiano AM (2001) Hair follicle predetermination. J Cell Sci 114:3419–3431

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Sbarti A, Accorsi D, Berati D et al (2010) Subcutaneous adipose tissue classification. Eur J Histochem 54:e48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Schmidt B, Horsley V (2012) Unraveling hair follicle-adipocyte communications. Expert Dermatol 21:827–830

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hansen LS, Coggle JE, Wells J et al (1984) The influence of the hair cycle on the thickness of mouse skin. Anat Rec 210:569–573

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Hausman GJ, Campion DR, Richardson RL et al (1982) Adipocyte development in the rat hypodermis. Am J Anat 161:85–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Rodeheffer MS, Birsoy K, Friedman JM (2008) Identification of white adipocyte progenitor cells in vivo. Cell 135:240–249

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Rosen ED, Spiegelman BM (2000) Molecular regulation of adipogenesis. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 16:145–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Festa E, Fretz J, Berry R et al (2011) Adipocyte lineage cells contribute to the skin stem cell niche to drive hair cycling. Cell 146:761–771

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Hesslein DGT, Fretz JA, Xi Y et al (2009) Ebfl-dependent control of the osteoblast and adipocyte lineages. Bone 44:537–546

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sasaki GH (2015) Plastic surgery update on the biology of fat cells and adipose-derived stem cells for fat grafting. Open Access Libr J 2(e1505):1–26

    Google Scholar 

  58. Plikus M, Mayer J, de la Cruz D et al (2008) Cyclic dermal BMP signalling regulates stem cell activation during hair regeneration. Nature 451:340–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Zhang J, He X-C, Tong WG et al (2006) Bone morphogenetic protein signaling inhibits hair follicle anagen induction by restricting epithelia stem/progenitor cell activation and expansion. Stem Cells 24:2826–2839

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hamilton JB (1951) Patterned loss of hair in man: types and incidence. Ann NY Acad Sci 53:708–728

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Olsen EA (2008) Female pattern hair loss. In: Blum-Peytavi U, Tosti A, Whiting D et al (eds) Hair growth and disorders. Springer, Berlin, pp 171–186

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  62. Cash TF (1992) The psychological effects of androgenetic alopecia in men. J Am Acad Dermatol 26:929–931

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Cash TF, Price VH, Savin RC (1993) Psychological effects of androgenetic alopecia on women: comparisons with balding men and with female control subjects. J Am Acad Dermatol 29:568–575

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ellis JA, Stebbing M, Harrap SB (1998) Genetic analysis of male pattern baldness and 5α-reductase genes. J Invest Dermatol 110:849–853

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Griffen JE, Wilson JD (1989) The androgen resistance syndromes: 5α-reductase deficiency, testicular feminization, and related disorders. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, Valle D (eds) The metabolic basis of inherited disease, vol 2, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1919–1944

    Google Scholar 

  66. Feinstein R (2003) Androgenetic alopecia. www.emedicine.com/derm/topic21.htm. Accessed 8 August 2005

  67. Sawaya ME, Price VH (1997) Different levels of 5alpha-reductase type I and II, aromatase, and androgen receptor in hair follicles of women and men with androgenetic alopecia. J Invest Dermatol 109:296–300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kaufman KD (2002) Androgens and alopecia. Mol Cell Endocrinol 198:89–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Alsantali A, Shapiro J (2009) Androgens and hair loss. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 16:246–253

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Martinon F, Mayor A, Tschopp J (2009) The inflammasomes: guardians of the body. Annu Rev Immunol 27:229–265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. de Rovero VaccaroJ, Swaya ME, Brand F et al (2012) Caspase-1 level is higher in the scalp in androgenetic alopecia. Dermatol Surg 38:1033–1039

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Rattew JA, Huet-Hudson YM, Marriott I (2008) Testosterone reduces macrophage expression in the mouse of toll-like receptor 4, a trigger for inflammation and innate immunity. Biol Reprod 78:432–437

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Bergsbaken T, Fink SL, den Hartigh AB et al (2011) Coordinated host responses during pyroptosis: caspase-1-dependent lysosome exocytosis and inflammatory cytokine maturation. J Immunol 871:2748–2754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Norwood O (1975) Male pattern baldness: classification and incidence. South Med J 68:1359–1365

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Leavitt M (2008) Understanding and management of female pattern alopecia. Facial Plast Surg 24:414–417

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Yip L, Rufaut N, Sinclair R (2011) Role of genetics and sex steroid hormones in male adrogenetic alopecia and female pattern hair loss: an update of what we now know. Australas J Dermatol 52:81–881

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Hernadez BA (2004) Is androgenetic alopecia a result of endocrine effects on the vasculature? Med Hypotheses 62:438–441

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Orme S, Cullen DR, Messenger AG (1999) Diffuse female hair loss: are androgens necessary? Br J Dermatol 141:521–523

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Price VH, Roberts JL, Hordkinsky M et al (2000) Lack of efficacy of finasteride in postmenopausal women with androgenetic alopecia. J Am Acad Dermatol 43:768–776

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Gordon KA, Tosti A (2011) Alopecia: evaluation and treatment. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 4:101–106

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Messenger AG, Sinclair R (2006) Follicular miniaturization in female pattern hair loss: clinicopathological correlations. Br J Dermatol 155:926–930

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Blume-Peytavi U, Blumeyer A, Tosti A et al (2011) S1 guideline for diagnostic evaluation in adrogenetic alopecia in men, women, and adolescents. Br J Dermaol 164:5–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Whiting DA (1996) Chronic telogen effluvium: increased scalp hair shedding in middle-aged women. J Am Acad Dermatol 35:899–906

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Trueb RM (2000) Das idiopathische chronische telogen effluvium der frau. Hautarzt 51:899–905

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Rebora A (2004) Pathogenesis of androgenetic alopecia. J Am Acad Dermatol 50:777–779

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Inoue K, Aoi N, Sato T et al (2009) Differential expression of stem-cell-associated markers in human hair follicle epithelial cells. Lab Invest 89:844–856

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Rittie L, Stroll SW, Kang S et al (2009) Hedgehog signaling maintains hair follicle stem cell phenotype in young and aged human skin. Aging Cell 8(6):738–751

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Garza LA, Yang C-C, Zhao T et al (2011) Bald scalp in men with androgenetic alopecia retains hair follicle stem cells but lacks CD200-rich and CD34-positive hair follicle progenitor cells. J Clin Invest 121(2):613–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Ohyama M, Terunuma A, Tock CL et al (2006) Characterization and isolation of stem cell-enriched human hair follicle bulge cells. J Clin Invest 116:249–260

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Olsen EA, Messenger AF, Shapiro J et al (2005) Evaluation and treatment of male and female pattern hair loss. J Am Adad Dermatol 52:301–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Ross EK, Shapiro J (2005) Management of hair loss. Dermatol Clin 23(2):227–243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Ding QQ, Sinclair R (2007) Female pattern hair loss and treatment options concepts. Clin Interv Aging 2(2):189–199

    Google Scholar 

  93. Ziering C (2014) Experience with robotic surgery in hair transplantation. In: Programs and abstracts. XX Orlando Live Surgery Workshop; Orlando, Fl, USA, April, 2014

  94. Perez-Meza D (2009) Complications in hair restoration surgery. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 21(1):119–148

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Rogers NE, Avram MR (2008) Medical treatments for male and female pattern hair loss. J Am Acad Dermatol 59(4):547–566

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Lengg N, Heidecker B, Seifert B et al (2007) Dietary supplement increases anagen hair rate in women with telogen effluvium: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Therapy 4(1):59–65

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Glynis A (2012) A double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluating the efficacy of an oral supplement in women with self-perceived thinning hair. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 5(11):28–34

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Hornfeldt CS, Holland M (2015) The safety and efficacy of a sustainable marine extract for the treatment of thinning hair: a summary of new clinical research and results from a panel discussion on the problems of thinning hair and current treatments. J Drug Dermatol 14(9):15–22

    Google Scholar 

  99. Avram MR, Leonard RT Jr, Epstein ES et al (2007) The current role of laser/light sources in the treatment of male and female pattern hair loss. J Cosmet Laser Ther 9:27–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz A, Carter B (2012) Evidence-based treatments for female pattern hair loss: a summary of a Cochrane systematic review. Br J Dermatol 167(5):995–1010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz A, Carter B et al (2012) Interventions for female pattern hair loss. Cochraine Database Syst Rev 5:CD007628

    Google Scholar 

  102. Irwig MS (2015) Safety concerns regarding 5α reductase inhibitors for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 22(3):248–0253

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Jacomb RG, Brunnberg FJ (1976) The use of minoxidil in the treatments of severe essential hypertension: a report on 100 patients. Clin Sci Mol Med Suppl 3:579–581

    Google Scholar 

  104. Dargie HJ, Dollery CT, Daniel J (1077) Minoxidil in resistant hypertension. Lancet 2:515–518

    Google Scholar 

  105. Burton JL, Marshall A (1979) Hypertrichosis due to minoxidil. Br J Dermatol 101:593–595

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Olsen EA, Dunlap FE, Funicella T et al (2002) A randomized clinical trial of 5% topical minoxidil versus 2% topical minoxidil and placebo in the treatment of adrogenetic alopecia in man. J Am Acad Dermatol 47:377–385

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lucky AW, Picquadio DJ, Ditre CM et al (2004) A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 5% and 2% topical minoxidil solutions in the treatment of female pattern hair loss. J Am Acad Dermatol 50:541–543

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Avram MR, Cole JP, Gandelman M et al (2002) The potential role of minoxidil in the hair transplantation setting: roundtable consensus meeting of the 9th annual meeting of the International Society of Hair Restoration Surgery. Dermatol Surg 28:894–900

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Buhl AE, Waldon DJ, Baker CA et al (1990) Minoxidil sulfate is the active metabolite that stimulates hair follicles. J Invest Dermatol 95:553–557

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Dooley TP, Walker CJ, Dietz AJ (1991) Localization of minoxidil sulfotransferase in rat liver and the outer root sheath of anagen pelage and vibrissa follicles. J Invest Dermatol 96:65–70

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Meisheri KD, Cipkus LA, Taylor CJ (1998) Mechanism of action of minoxidil sulfate-induced vasodilation: a role for increased K + permeability. J Pharmocol Exp Ther 245:751–760

    Google Scholar 

  112. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Guy RH et al (1984) Minoxidil stimulates cutaneous blood flow in human balding scalp: pharmacodynamics measured by laser Doppler velocimetry and photopulse plethysmography. J Invest Dermatol 82:515–517

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Lachgar S, Chareron M, Gail Y et al (1998) Minoxidil upregulates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in human dermal papilla cells. Br J Dermatol 138:407–411

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Han JH, Kwon OS, Chung JH et al (2004) Effect of minoxidil on proliferation and apoptosis in dermal papilla cells of human follicle. J Dermatol Sci 34(2):91–98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Rietschel RL, Duncan SH (1987) Safety and efficacy of topical minoxidil in the management of androgenetic alopecia. J Am Acad Dermatol 16:677–685

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Dawber RP, Rundegren J (2003) Hypertrichosis in females applying minoxidil topical solution and in normal controls. J Eur Acad Dermatol 17(3):271–275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Abell E (1988) Histologic response to topically applied minoxidil in male-patterned alopecia. Clin Dermatol 6:191–194

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Roberts JL, Fiedler V, Imperato-McGinley J et al (1999) Clinical dose ranging studies with finasteride, a type2 5-α reductase inhibitor, in men with male pattern hair loss. J Am Acad Dermatol 41:555–563

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Headington JT, Novak E (1984) Clinical and histologic studies of male pattern baldness treated with topical minoxidil. Curr Ther Res. 36:1098–1106

    Google Scholar 

  120. Finasteride Male Pattern Hair Loss Study Group (2002) Long-term (5 year) multinational experience with finasteride 1 mg in the treatment of men with androgenetic alopecia. Eur J Dermatol 12:38–49

    Google Scholar 

  121. Leyden J, Dunlap F, Miller B et al (1999) Finasteride in treatment of men with frontal male pattern hair loss. J Am Acad Dermatol 40(6 Pt.):930–937

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Drake L, Hordinsky M, Fiedler V et al (1999) The effects of finasteride on scalp skin and serum androgen levels in men with androgenetic alopecia. J Am Acad Dermatol 41:550–554

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Whiting DA, Waldstreicher HA, Sanchez M et al (1999) Measuring reversal of hair miniaturization in androgenetic alopecia by follicular counts in horizontal sections of serial scalp biopsies: results of finasteride 1 mg treatment of men and postmenausal women. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 4:282–284

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Tosti A, Piraccini BM (2000) Finasteride and the hair cycle. J Am Acad Dermatol 42:848–849

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Me Sawaya, Blume-peytavi U, Mullins DL et al (2002) Effects of finasteride on apoptosis and regulation of human hair cycle. J Cutan Med Surg 6:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  126. de Rivero Vaccari JP, Sawaya ME et al (2012) Caspase-1 level is higher in the scalp in androgenetic alopecia. Dermatol Surg 38:1033–1039

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Libecco JF, Bergfelde WF (2004) Finasteride in the treatment of alopecia. Expert Opin Pharmacother 5(4):933–940

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Thompson IM, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM et al (2003) The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 349:215–224

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Goldstein J, Valerie H (2012) Home sweet home: skin stem cell niches”. Cell Mol Life Sci 69(15):2573–2582

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Kilroy GE, Foster S, Wu X et al (2007) Cytokine profile of human adipose-derived stem cells: expression of angiogenic, hematopoietic, and pro-inflammatory factors. J Cell Physiol 212:702–709

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Uebel CO, da Silva JB, Cantarelli D et al (2006) The role of platelet plasma growth factors in male pattern baldness surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg 118(6):1458–1466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Takikawa M, Nakamura S, Nakmura S et al (2011) Enhanced effect of platelet-rich plasma containing a new carrier on hair growth. Dermatol Surg 37:1721–1729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Li ZI, Choi HI, Choi DK et al (2012) Autologous platelet-rich plasma: a potential therapeutic tool for promoting hair growth. Dermatol Surg 38:1040–1046

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Kang JS, Zheng Z, Choi MJ et al (2014) The effect of CD34 + cell-containing autologous platelet-rich plasma injection on pattern hair loss: a preliminary study. J Eur Dermatol Venereol 28(1):72–79

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Eppley BL, Petrzak WS, Blanton M (2004) Platelet-rich plasm: a review of biology and applications in plastic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg 114:1502–1508

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Weibrich G, Kleis SWK, Hitzler WE et al (2002) Growth factor levels in platelet-rich plasma and correlations with donor age, sex, and platelet count. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 30:97–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Bir SC, Esaki J, Marui A et al (2009) Angiogenic properties of sustained release platelet-rich plasma: characterization in vitro and in the ischemic hind limb of the mouse. J Vasc Surg 50:870–879

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Kakudo N, Minakata T, Mitsui T et al (2008) Proliferation-promoting effect of platelet-rich plasma on human adipose-derived stem cells and human dermal fibroblasts. Plast Reconstr Surg 122(5):1352–1360

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Cervelli V, Scioli MG, Gentile P et al (2012) Platelet-rich plasma greatly potentiates insulin-induced adipogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells through a sere/threonine kinase Akt-dependent mechanism and promotes clinical fat graft maintenance. Stem Cells Transl Med 1(3):206–220

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Fukaya Y, Kuroda M, Aoyagi Y et al (2012) Platelet-rich plasma inhibits the apoptosis of highly adipogenic homogeneous pre-adipocytes in an in vitro culture system. Exp Mol Med 44(5):330–339

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  141. Itami S, Kurata S, Takayasu S (1995) Androgen induction of follicular epithelial cell growth is mediated via insulin-like growth factor-1 from dermal papilla cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 21:988–995

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Jindo T, Tsuboi R, Takamori K et al (1998) Local injection of hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF) alters cyclic growth of murine hair follicles. J Invest Dermatol 110:338–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Guo L, Degenstein L, Fuchs E (1996) Keratinocyte growth factor is required for hair development but not for wound healing. Genes Dev 10:165–175

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Giusti I, Rughetti A, D’Ascenszo S et al (2009) Identification of an optimal concentration of platelet gel for promoting angiogenesis in human endothelial cells. Transfusion 49:771–778

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Hausauer AK, Jones DH (2018) Evaluating the efficacy of different platelet-rich plasma regimens for management of androgenetic alopecia: a single-center, blinded, randomized clinical trial. Dermatol Surg 44(9):1191–1200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Lee GR, Sasaki GH (2014) PRP for hair loss. MedEsthetics 10(6):28–32

    Google Scholar 

  147. Perez-Meza D, Ziering C, Sforza M et al (2017) Hair follicle growth by stromal vascular fraction-enhanced adipose transplantation in baldness. Stem Cells Clon Adv Appl 10:1–10

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Evelyn Avanessian, RN, Brigette Ibarra, LVN, for technical assistance in PRP isolation and cell counting; Sharon Cuellar, CST, for surgical assistance; Melissa Avitea, MA, for her IRB assistance; and Margaret Gaston, BS, for creating the artwork and providing the statistical and photographic assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Loma Linda Medical University, Loma Linda, CA, USA

    Gordon H. Sasaki

  2. Private Practice: # 319, 800 S. Fairmount Ave, Pasadena, CA, 91105, USA

    Gordon H. Sasaki

Authors
  1. Gordon H. Sasaki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gordon H. Sasaki.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author is an unpaid consultant to Harvest Technologies Corp and MicroAire Surgical Instrument and declares no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and publication of this article. The author has neither financial nor investigational interests with Cytori Therapeutics, Inc. The author received no financial or equipment support from any of the device companies in this study. No financial support was provided for the writing of the article.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sasaki, G.H. Review of Human Hair Follicle Biology: Dynamics of Niches and Stem Cell Regulation for Possible Therapeutic Hair Stimulation for Plastic Surgeons. Aesth Plast Surg 43, 253–266 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-018-1248-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-018-1248-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation