Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Screening for Oral Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Contemporary Oral Oncology

Abstract

Oral cancer refers to malignant neoplasms arising in the mucosa of the lip, tongue and mouth (International Classification of Diseases 10th Edition (ICD-10) codes C00-06) which are lined by stratified squamous epithelium. More than 90 % of the cancers occurring in the oral cavity are squamous cell carcinomas of varying differentiation, predominantly caused by chronic exposure to tobacco use in any form, alcohol drinking or both and are rarely due to chronic traumatic irritation. However, there is considerable misclassification and overlapping of cancer sites when the generic term “oral cancer” is used such as malignant neoplasms originating in adjacent anatomical sites such as the oropharynx and hypopharynx, even larynx and oesophagus, have been included as “oral cancer” by many authors and reports in the scientific literature, which makes interpretation and comparison of oral cancer burden and outcomes somewhat challenging. Our discussion in this chapter refers to cancers occurring in ICD-10 sites C00-C06 as oral cancer. According to the most recent global estimates, oral cancer (C00-06) is the thirteenth most common cancer in the world, accounting for an estimated 300,000 new cases and 145,000 deaths in the world around 2012, of which 200,000 cases and 112,000 deaths occurred in less developed countries [1].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ferlay JF, Soerjomataram I, Ervik M, Dikshit R, Eser S, Mathers C, et al. GLOBOCAN 2012 v1.0. Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide: IARC CancerBase No. 11 [Internet]. Lyon: IARC; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Forman D, Bray F, Brewster DH, Gombe Mbalawa C, Kohler B, Pineros M, et al. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. X (electronic version). Lyon: IARC; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Syrjanen S, Lodi G, von B I, Aliko A, Arduino P, Campisi G, et al. Human papillomaviruses in oral carcinoma and oral potentially malignant disorders: a systematic review. Oral Dis. 2011;17 Suppl 1:58–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Jayaprakash V, Reid M, Hatton E, Merzianu M, Rigual N, Marshall J, et al. Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in epithelial dysplasia of oral cavity and oropharynx: a meta-analysis, 1985–2010. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(11):1048–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Ries LAG, Melbert D, Krapcho M, Stinchcomb DG, Howlader N, Horner MJ. Cancer statistics review, 1975–2005. Bethesda: National Cancer Institute; 2008. Based on November 2007 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2005.

  6. Sankaranarayanan R, Swaminathan R, Brenner H, Chen K, Chia KS, Chen JG, et al. Cancer survival in Africa, Asia, and Central America: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11:165–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Sant M, Allemani C, Santaquilani M, Knijn A, Marchesi F, Capocaccia R. EUROCARE-4. Survival of cancer patients diagnosed in 1995–1999. Results and commentary. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45:931–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Sankaranarayanan R, Swaminathan R. Cancer survival in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Central America, IARC scientific publications, vol. 162. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Sankaranarayanan R, Swaminathan R, Lucas E. Cancer survival in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Central America (SurvCan). 2011. Available at http://survcan.iarc.fr/.

  10. Warnakulasuriya S, Johnson NW, van dW I. Nomenclature and classification of potentially malignant disorders of the oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:575–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; terminology, classification and present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2009;45:317–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Napier SS, Speight PM. Natural history of potentially malignant oral lesions and conditions: an overview of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Amagasa T, Yamashiro M, Uzawa N. Oral premalignant lesions: from a clinical perspective. Int J Clin Oncol. 2011;16:5–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Hsue SS, Wang WC, Chen CH, Lin CC, Chen YK, Lin LM. Malignant transformation in 1458 patients with potentially malignant oral mucosal disorders: a follow-up study based in a Taiwanese hospital. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:25–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Smith J, Rattay T, McConkey C, Helliwell T, Mehanna H. Biomarkers in dysplasia of the oral cavity: a systematic review. Oral Oncol. 2009;45:647–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Rahman MA, Amin AR, Shin DM. Chemopreventive potential of natural compounds in head and neck cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2010;62:973–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Mehanna HM, Rattay T, Smith J, McConkey CC. Treatment and follow-up of oral dysplasia – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Head Neck. 2009;31:1600–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Angadi PV, Rao S. Management of oral submucous fibrosis: an overview. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;14:133–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Deppe H, Mucke T, Hohlweg-Majert B, Hauck W, Wagenpfeil S, Holzle F. Different CO(2) laser vaporization protocols for the therapy of oral precancerous lesions and precancerous conditions: a 10-year follow-up. Lasers Med Sci. 2011;27(1):59–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Pandey M, Thomas G, Somanathan T, Sankaranarayanan R, Abraham EK, Jacob BJ, et al. Evaluation of surgical excision of non-homogeneous oral leukoplakia in a screening intervention trial, Kerala, India. Oral Oncol. 2001;37:103–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Pindborg JJ, Reichart PA, Smith CJ, Van der Waal I. Histological typing of cancer and precancer of the oral mucosa. International Classification of Tumours. Berlin: Springer; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Warnakulasuriya KA, Ekanayake AN, Sivayoham S, Stjernsward J, Pindborg JJ, Sobin LH, et al. Utilization of primary health care workers for early detection of oral cancer and precancer cases in Sri Lanka. Bull World Health Organ. 1984;62:243–50.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Warnakulasuriya KA, Nanayakkara BG. Reproducibility of an oral cancer and precancer detection program using a primary health care model in Sri Lanka. Cancer Detect Prev. 1991;15:331–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Mehta FS, Gupta PC, Bhonsle RB, Murti PR, Daftary DK, Pindborg JJ. Detection of oral cancer using basic health workers in an area of high oral cancer incidence in India. Cancer Detect Prev. 1986;9:219–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Mathew B, Sankaranarayanan R, Sunilkumar KB, Kuruvila B, Pisani P, Nair MK. Reproducibility and validity of oral visual inspection by trained health workers in the detection of oral precancer and cancer. Br J Cancer. 1997;76:390–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Mashberg A, Barsa P. Screening for oral and oropharyngeal squamous carcinomas. CA Cancer J Clin. 1984;34:262–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Frenandez GL, Sankaranarayanan R, Lence Anta JJ, Rodriguez SA, Maxwell PD. An evaluation of the oral cancer control program in Cuba. Epidemiology. 1995;6:428–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Downer MC, Moles DR, Palmer S, Speight PM. A systematic review of test performance in screening for oral cancer and precancer. Oral Oncol. 2004;40:264–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sankaranarayanan R, Fernandez GL, Lence AJ, Pisani P, Rodriguez SA. Visual inspection in oral cancer screening in Cuba: a case–control study. Oral Oncol. 2002;38:131–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Sankaranarayanan R, Ramadas K, Thomas G, Muwonge R, Thara S, Mathew B, et al. Effect of screening on oral cancer mortality in Kerala, India: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365:1927–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Subramanian S, Sankaranarayanan R, Bapat B, Somanathan T, Thomas G, Mathew B, et al. Cost-effectiveness of oral cancer screening: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial in India. Bull World Health Organ. 2009;87:200–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Mathew B, Sankaranarayanan R, Wesley R, Nair MK. Evaluation of mouth self-examination in the control of oral cancer. Br J Cancer. 1995;71:397–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Scott SE, Rizvi K, Grunfeld EA, McGurk M. Pilot study to estimate the accuracy of mouth self-examination in an at-risk group. Head Neck. 2010;32:1393–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Elango KJ, Anandkrishnan N, Suresh A, Iyer SK, Ramaiyer SK, Kuriakose MA. Mouth self-examination to improve oral cancer awareness and early detection in a high-risk population. Oral Oncol. 2011;47:620–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Patton LL, Epstein JB, Kerr AR. Adjunctive techniques for oral cancer examination and lesion diagnosis: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139:896–905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Fedele S. Diagnostic aids in the screening of oral cancer. Head Neck Oncol. 2009;1:5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Lingen MW, Kalmar JR, Karrison T, Speight PM. Critical evaluation of diagnostic aids for the detection of oral cancer. Oral Oncol. 2008;44:10–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Epstein JB, Sciubba J, Silverman Jr S, Sroussi HY. Utility of toluidine blue in oral premalignant lesions and squamous cell carcinoma: continuing research and implications for clinical practice. Head Neck. 2007;29:948–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Zhang L, Williams M, Poh CF, Laronde D, Epstein JB, Durham S, et al. Toluidine blue staining identifies high-risk primary oral premalignant lesions with poor outcome. Cancer Res. 2005;65:8017–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Oh ES, Laskin DM. Efficacy of the ViziLite system in the identification of oral lesions. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;65:424–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Bhalang K, Suesuwan A, Dhanuthai K, Sannikorn P, Luangjarmekorn L, Swasdison S. The application of acetic acid in the detection of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106:371–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. De Veld DC, Witjes MJ, Sterenborg HJ, Roodenburg JL. The status of in vivo autofluorescence spectroscopy and imaging for oral oncology. Oral Oncol. 2005;41:117–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Trullenque-Eriksson A, Munoz-Corcuera M, Campo-Trapero J, Cano-Sanchez J, Bascones-Martinez A. Analysis of new diagnostic methods in suspicious lesions of the oral mucosa. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2009;14:E210–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Perez-Sayansm M, Somoza-Martin JM, Barros-Angueira F, Reboiras-Lopez MD, Gandara-Vila P, Gandara Rey JM, et al. Exfoliative cytology for diagnosing oral cancer. Biotech Histochem. 2010;85:177–87.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Cristallini EG, Padalino D, Bolis GB. Role of FNAB in the follow-up of cancer patients. Appl Pathol. 1989;7:219–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Balevi B. Assessing the usefulness of three adjunctive diagnostic devices for oral cancer screening: a probabilistic approach. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2011;39:171–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Shpitzer T, Bahar G, Feinmesser R, Nagler RM. A comprehensive salivary analysis for oral cancer diagnosis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2007;133:613–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Nagler RM. Saliva as a tool for oral cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Oral Oncol. 2009;45:1006–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Kujan O, Glenny AM, Oliver RJ, Thakker N, Sloan P. Screening programmes for the early detection and prevention of oral cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD004150.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Kujan O, Glenny AM, Sloan P. Screening for oral cancer. Lancet. 2005;366:1265–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. National Cancer Institute. Oral cancer screening. U.S. National Institutes of Health. 2011. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/screening/oral/healthprofessional.

  52. Rethman MP, Carpenter W, Cohen EE, Epstein J, Evans CA, Flaitz CM, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations regarding screening for oral squamous cell carcinomas. J Am Dent Assoc. 2010;141:509–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Sankaranarayanan R, Ramadas K, Thara S, Muwonge R, Thomas G, Anju G, Mathew B. Long term effect of visual screening on oral cancer incidence and mortality in a randomized trial in Kerala, India. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(4):314–21.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ramadas K, Arrossi S, Thara S, Sankaranarayanan R. Keynote comment: importance of recognising scientific evidence. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:962–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Speight PM, Palmer S, Moles DR, Downer MC, Smith DH, Henriksson M, et al. The cost-effectiveness of screening for oral cancer in primary care. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1–iv.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Nagao T, Warnakulasuriya S, Ikeda N, Fukano H, Fujiwara K, Miyazaki H. Oral cancer screening as an integral part of general health screening in Tokoname City, Japan. J Med Screen. 2000;7:203–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Nagao T, Ikeda N, Fukano H, Miyazaki H, Yano M, Warnakulasuriya S. Outcome following a population screening programme for oral cancer and precancer in Japan. Oral Oncol. 2000;36:340–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Nagao T, Warnakulasuriya S, Gelbier S, Yuasa H, Tsuboi S, Nakagaki H. Oral pre-cancer and the associated risk factors among industrial workers in Japan’s overseas enterprises in the UK. J Oral Pathol Med. 2003;32:257–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. World Health Organization. Mortality database. 2011. Available at http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/WHOdb.htm.

  60. Lin YS, Jen YM, Wang BB, Lee JC, Kang BH. Epidemiology of oral cavity cancer in Taiwan with emphasis on the role of betel nut chewing. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2005;67:230–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Wang PE, Wang TT, Chiu YH, Yen AM, Chen TH. Evolution of multiple disease screening in Keelung: a model for community involvement in health interventions? J Med Screen. 2006;13 Suppl 1:S54–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Johnson NW, Warnakulasuriya S, Gupta PC, Dimba E, Chindia M, Otoh EC, et al. Global oral health inequalities in incidence and outcomes for oral cancer: causes and solutions. Adv Dent Res. 2011;23:237–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Early Detection and Prevention Section (EDP) and Screening Group (SCR), International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 150 cours Albert Thomas, 69372, Lyon Cedex 08, France

    Rengaswamy Sankaranarayanan MD

  2. Division of Cytopathology, Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum, 695011, India

    Thara Somanathan MD

  3. Division of Community Oncology, Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum, 695011, India

    Gigi Thomas MDS

  4. Division of Radiotherapy, Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum, 695011, India

    Kunnambath Ramadas MD, FAMS

Authors
  1. Rengaswamy Sankaranarayanan MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thara Somanathan MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gigi Thomas MDS
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kunnambath Ramadas MD, FAMS
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rengaswamy Sankaranarayanan MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Head and Neck, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, USA

    Moni Abraham Kuriakose

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sankaranarayanan, R., Somanathan, T., Thomas, G., Ramadas, K. (2017). Screening for Oral Cancer. In: Kuriakose, M.A. (eds) Contemporary Oral Oncology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14911-0_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14911-0_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-14910-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-14911-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation