Abstract
Although lower socioeconomic status has been linked to increased youth substance use, much less research has determined potential mechanisms explaining the association. The current longitudinal study tested whether alternative (i.e., pleasure gained from activities without any concurrent use of substances) and complementary (i.e., pleasure gained from activities in tandem with substance use) reinforcement mediate the link between lower socioeconomic status and youth substance use. Further, we tested whether alternative and complementary reinforcement and youth substance use gradually unfold over time and then intersect with one another in a cascading manner. Potential sex differences are also examined. Data were drawn from a longitudinal survey of substance use and mental health among high school students in Los Angeles. Data collection involved four semiannual assessment waves beginning in fall 2013 (N = 3395; M baseline age = 14.1; 47% Hispanic, 16.2% Asian, 16.1% multiethnic, 15.7% White, and 5% Black; 53.4% female). The results from a negative binomial path model suggested that lower parental socioeconomic status (i.e., lower parental education) was significantly related to an increased number of substances used by youth. The final path model revealed that the inverse association was statistically mediated by adolescents’ diminished engagement in pleasurable substance-free activities (i.e., alternative reinforcers) and elevated engagement in pleasurable activities paired with substance use (i.e., complementary reinforcers). The direct effect of lower parental education on adolescent substance use was not statistically significant after accounting for the hypothesized mediating mechanisms. No sex differences were detected. Increasing access to and engagement in pleasant activities of high quality that do not need a reinforcement enhancer, such as substances, may be useful in interrupting the link between lower parental socioeconomic status and youth substance use.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afterschool Alliance. (2014). America after 3PM: Afterschool programs in demand. Washington, DC: Author.
Andrabi, N., Khoddam, R., & Leventhal, A. M. (2017). Socioeconomic disparities in adolescent substance use: Role of enjoyable alternative substance-free activities. Social Science & Medicine, 176, 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.12.032.
Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Rodgers, K., & Cuevas, J. (2011). Declining alternative reinforcers link depression to young adult smoking. Addiction, 106, 178–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03113.x.
Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Tercyak, K. P., Epstein, L. H., Goldman, P., & Wileyto, E. P. (2004). Applying a behavioral economic framework to understanding adolescent smoking. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164x.18.1.64.
Bachman, J. G O’Malley, P. M Johnston, L. D Schulenberg, J. E Wallace, J. M., Jr. (2011). Racial/ethnic differences in the relationship between parental education and substance use among U.S. 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-grade students: Findings from the monitoring the future project. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72, 279–285. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.279.
Bickel, W. K., Johnson, M. W., Koffarnus, M. N., MacKillop, J., & Murphy, J. G. (2014). The behavioral economics of substance use disorders: Reinforcement pathologies and their repair. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 641–677. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153724.
Broidy, L., & Agnew, R. (1997). Gender and crime: A general strain theory perspective. Journal of Research in Crimean and Delinquency, 34(3), 275–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427897034003001.
Buchmann, M., & Steinhoff, A. (2017). Social inequality, life course transitions, and adolescent development: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 2083–2090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0740-2.
Burke, C. A. (2010). Mindfulness-based approaches with children and adolescents: A preliminary review of current research in an emergent field. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9282-x.
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735–765. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030737.
Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2014). Are mindfulness-based interventions effective for substance use disorders? A systematic review of the evidence. Substance Use & Misuse, 49, 492–512. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2013.770027.
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2016). Parent and youth dopamine D4 receptor genotypes moderate multilevel contextual effects on rural African American youth’s risk behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 433–445. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579415000565.
Chodorow, N. (1978). Mothering, object-relations, and the female Oedipal configuration. Feminist Studies, 4, 137–158. https://doi.org/10.2307/3177630.
Choi, W. S., Pierce, J. P., Gilpin, E. A., Farkas, A. J., & Berry, C. C. (1997). Which adolescent experimenters progress to established smoking in the United States. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 13, 385–391.
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children’s development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1993.11024624.
Connor, J. P., Gullo, M. J., White, A., & Kelly, A. B. (2014). Polysubstance use: Diagnostic challenges, patterns of use and health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 27, 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000069.
Ditlevsen, S., Christensen, U., Lynch, J., Damsgaard, M. T., & Keiding, N. (2005). The mediation proportion: A structural equation approach for estimating the proportion of exposure effect on outcome explained by an intermediate variable. Epidemiology, 16, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000147107.76079.07.
Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Landsford, J. E., Miller, S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance-use onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74(3), 1–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2009.00528.x.
Ellickson, P. L., McGuigan, K. A., & Klein, D. J. (2001). Predictors of late-onset smoking and cessation over 10 years. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(00)00199-3.
Estabrooks, P. A., Lee, R. E., & Gyurcsik, N. C. (2003). Resources for physical activity participation: Does availability and accessibility differ by neighborhood socioeconomic status? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 100–104. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm2502_05.
Finlay, A. K., Ram, N., Maggs, J. L., & Caldwell, L. L. (2012). Leisure activities, the social weekend, and alcohol use: Evidence from a daily study of first-year college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 250–259. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.250.
Flay, B. R., Hu, F. B., & Richardson, J. (1998). Psychosocial predictors of different stages of cigarette smoking among high school students. Preventive Medicine, 27(5, Pt. 3), A9–A18. https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.1998.0380.
Freese, J., & Lutfey, K. (2011). Fundamental causality: Challenges of an animating concept for medical sociology. In B. A. Pescosolido, J. K. Martin, J. D. McLeod & A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of health, illness, and healing (pp. 67–81). New York, NY: Springer.
Friestad, C Pirkis, J Biehl, M Irwin, C. E., Jr. (2003). Socioeconomic patterning of smoking, sedentary lifestyle, and overweight status among adolescents in Norway and the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33, 275–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00214-3.
Galea, S., & Tracy, M. (2007). Participation rates in epidemiologic studies. Annals of Epidemiology, 17, 643–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.03.013.
Galobardes, B., Shaw, M., Lawlor, D. A., Lynch, J. W., & Smith, G. D. (2006). Indicators of socioeconomic position (part 1). Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 60, 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.023531.
Gardner, M., Roth, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2008). Adolescents’ participation in organized activities and developmental success 2 and 8 years after high school: Do sponsorship, duration, and intensity matter? Developmental Psychology, 44, 814–830. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.814.
Goldstein, A. L., Wall, A.-M., Wekerle, C., & Krank, M. (2013). The impact of perceived reinforcement from alcohol and involvement in leisure activities on adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 22, 340–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828x.2012.735190.
Grube, J. W. (1997). Preventing sales of alcohol to minors: Results from a community trial. Addiction, 92, S251–S260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02995.x.
Guttmannova, K., Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Lee, J. O., Hawkins, J. D., Woods, M. L., & Catalano, R. F. (2011). Sensitive periods for adolescent alcohol use initiation: Predicting the lifetime occurrence and chronicity of alcohol problems in adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72, 221–231. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.221.
Hanson, M. D., & Chen, E. (2007). Socioeconomic status and health behaviors in adolescence: A review of the literature. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30, 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-007-9098-3.
Hardaway, C. R., & Cornelius, M. D. (2014). Economic hardship and adolescent problem drinking: Family processes as mediating influences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1191–1202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0063-x.
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.64.
Henriksen, L., Feighery, E. C., Schleicher, N. C., Cowling, D. W., Kline, R. S., & Fortmann, S. P. (2008). Is adolescent smoking related to the density and proximity of tobacco outlets and retail cigarette advertising near schools? Preventive Medicine, 47, 210–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.04.008.
Hilbe, J. M. (2011). Negative binomial regression.. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Holder, H. D., Gruenewald, P. J., Ponicki, W. R., Treno, A. J., Grube, J. W., Saltz, R. F., & Roeper, P. (2000). Effect of community-based interventions on high-risk drinking and alcohol-related injuries. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 2341–2347. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.18.2341.
Irons, D. E., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2015). Tests of the effects of adolescent early alcohol exposures on adult outcomes. Addiction, 110, 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12747.
Jefferis, B. J. M. H., Power, C., Graham, H., & Manor, O. (2004). Effects of childhood socioeconomic circumstances on persistent smoking. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 279–285. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.2.279.
Johnston, L., Miech, R., O’Malley, P., Bachman, J., & Schulenberg, J. (2014). Use of alcohol, cigarettes, and number of illicit drugs declines among US teens. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News Service.
Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Miech, R. A., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2017). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2016: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.
Kelly, A. B., Evans-Whipp, T. J., Smith, R., Chan, G. C. K., Toumbourou, J. W., Patton, G. C., & Catalano, R. F. (2015). A longitudinal study of the association of adolescent polydrug use, alcohol use and high school non-completion. Addiction, 110, 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12829.
Kenkel, D., Lillard, D., & Mathios, A. (2006). The roles of high school completion and GED receipt in smoking and obesity. Journal of Labor Economics, 24, 635–660.
Khoddam, R., & Leventhal, A. M. (2016). Alternative and complementary reinforcers as mechanisms linking adolescent conduct problems and substance use. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24, 376–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000088.
Kokkevi, A., Kanavou, E., Richardson, C., Fotiou, A., Papadopoulou, S., Monshouwer, K., & Olszewski, D. (2014). Polydrug use by European adolescents in the context of other problem behaviours. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 31, 323–342. https://doi.org/10.2478/nsad-2014-0026.
Kuntsche, E., Kuntsche, S., Knibbe, R., Simons-Morton, B., Farhat, T., Hublet, A., & Demetrovics, Z. (2011). Cultural and gender convergence in adolescent drunkenness: Evidence from 23 European and North American countries. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 165, 152–158. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.191.
Laird, J., Lew, S., DeBell, M., & Chapman, C. (2006). Dropout rates in the United States: 2002 and 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Lee, J. O., Jones, T. M., Kosterman, R., Rhew, I. C., Lovasi, G. S., Hill, K. G., & Hawkins, J. D. (2017). The association of unemployment from age 21 to 33 with substance use disorder symptoms at age 39: The role of childhood neighborhood characteristics. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 174, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.01.005.
Lemstra, M., Bennett, N. R., Neudorf, C., Kunst, A., Nannapaneni, U., Warren, L. M., & Scott, C. R. (2008). A meta-analysis of marijuana and alcohol use by socio-economic status in adolescents aged 10-15 years. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 99, 172–177.
Leventhal, A. M. (2016). The sociopharmacology of tobacco addiction: Implications for understanding health disparities. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 18, 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntv084.
Leventhal, A. M., Bello, M. S., Unger, J. B., Strong, D. R., Kirkpatrick, M. G., & Audrain-McGovern, J. (2015a). Diminished alternative reinforcement as a mechanism underlying socioeconomic disparities in adolescent substance use. Preventive Medicine, 80, 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.05.021.
Leventhal, A. M., Strong, D. R., Kirkpatrick, M. G., Unger, J. B., Sussman, S., Riggs, N. R., & Audrain-McGovern, J. (2015b). Association of electronic cigarette use with initiation of combustible tobacco product smoking in early adolescence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 314, 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.8950.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. (1995). Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 80–94. https://doi.org/10.2307/2626958.
Linton, S. L., Jennings, J. M., Latkin, C. A., Gomez, M. B., & Mehta, S. H. (2014). Application of space-time scan statistics to describe geographic and temporal clustering of visible drug activity. Journal of Urban Health, 91, 940–956. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9890-7.
Lintonen, T., Rimpelä, M., Vikat, A., & Rimpelä, A. (2000). The effect of societal changes on drunkenness trends in early adolescence. Health Education Research, 15, 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/15.3.261.
MacPhillamy, D. J., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1976). Manual for the Pleasant Events Schedule. Eugene, OR: MacPhillamy & Lewinsohn.
Mahler, S. V., Smith, K. S., & Berridge, K. C. (2007). Endocannabinoid hedonic hotspot for sensory pleasure: Anandamide in nucleus accumbens shell enhances ‘liking’ of a sweet reward. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 2267–2278. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301376.
Mahoney, J. L., Parente, M. E., & Zigler, E. F. (2009). Afterschool programs in America: Origins, growth, popularity, and politics. Journal of Youth Development, 4(3), 25–44.
Masten, A. S., Desjardins, C. D., McCormick, C. M., Kuo, S. I.-C., & Long, J. D. (2010). The significance of childhood competence and problems for adult success in work: A developmental cascade analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 679–694. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000362.
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., & Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733.
Melotti, R., Lewis, G., Hickman, M., Heron, J., Araya, R., & Macleod, J. (2013). Early life socio-economic position and later alcohol use: Birth cohort study. Addiction, 108, 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12018.
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2012). Meeting in the middle: Motivational interviewing and self-determination theory. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 25 https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-25.
Moore, L. V., Diez Roux, A. V., Evenson, K. R., McGinn, A. P., & Brines, S. J. (2008). Availability of recreational resources in minority and low socioeconomic status areas. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34, 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.09.021.
Murphy, J. G., Barnett, N. P., & Colby, S. M. (2006). Alcohol-related and alcohol-free activity participation and enjoyment among college students: A behavioral theories of choice analysis. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14, 339–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.14.3.339.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus user’s guide. 7th edn. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Németh, J., & Ross, E. (2014). Planning for marijuana: The cannabis conundrum. Journal of the American Planning Association, 80, 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.935241.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2004). Gender differences in risk factors and consequences for alcohol use and problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 981–1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.08.003.
Pampel, F. C., Krueger, P. M., & Denney, J. T. (2010). Socioeconomic disparities in health behaviors. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 349–370. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102529.
Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status and substance use among young adults: A comparison across constructs and drugs. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 772–782. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772.
Perkins, K. A., & Karelitz, J. L. (2013). Reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine via smoking. Psychopharmacology, 228, 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3054-4.
Perkins, K. A., & Karelitz, J. L. (2014). Sensory reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine via smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22, 511–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037823.
Piko, B. F., & Fitzpatrick, K. M. (2007). Socioeconomic status, psychosocial health and health behaviours among Hungarian adolescents. European Journal of Public Health, 17, 353–360. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckl257.
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658.
Rhew, I. C., Kosterman, R., & Lee, J. O. (2017). Neighborhood typologies associated with alcohol use among adults in their 30s: A finite mixture modeling approach. Journal of Urban Health, 94, 542–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0161-2.
Rigolon, A. (2016). A complex landscape of inequity in access to urban parks: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 153, 160–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.05.017.
Ritterman, M. L., Fernald, L. C., Ozer, E. J., Adler, N. E., Gutierrez, J. P., & Syme, S. L. (2009). Objective and subjective social class gradients for substance use among Mexican adolescents. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1843–1851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.048.
Rockafellow, B. D., & Saules, K. K. (2006). Substance use by college students: The role of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation for athletic involvement. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20, 279–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164x.20.3.279.
Rogosch, F. A., Oshri, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: A developmental cascade model. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 883–897. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000520.
Romley, J. A., Cohen, D., Ringel, J., & Sturm, R. (2007). Alcohol and environmental justice: The density of liquor stores and bars in urban neighborhoods in the United States. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.48.
Saxe, L., Kadushin, C., Beveridge, A., Livert, D., Tighe, E., Rindskopf, D., & Brodsky, A. (2001). The visibility of illicit drugs: Implications for community-based drug control strategies. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1987–1994. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.12.1987.
Schlomer, G. L., Bauman, S., & Card, N. A. (2010). Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018082.
Shinew, K. J., & Parry, D. C. (2005). Examining college students’ participation in the leisure pursuits of drinking and illegal drug use. Journal of Leisure Research, 37, 364–386.
Thoemmes, F., MacKinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power analysis for complex mediational designs using Monte Carlo methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17, 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379.
Tomczyk, S., Isensee, B., & Hanewinkel, R. (2016). Latent classes of polysubstance use among adolescents-a systematic review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 160, 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.035.
Tucker, J. A., Vuchinich, R. E., & Murphy, J. G. (2002). Assessment, treatment planning, and outcome evaluation for substance use disorders. In M. H. Anthony & D. H. Barlow (Eds.), Handbook of assessment and treatment planning (pp. 415–452). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Unger, J. B. (2014). Cultural influences on substance use among Hispanic adolescents and young adults: Findings from Project RED. Child Development Perspectives, 8, 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12060.
Vieno, A., Nation, M., Perkins, D. D., & Santinello, M. (2007). Civic participation and the development of adolescent behavior problems. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 761–777. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20177.
Wallace, J. M., Jr. Vaughn, M. G Bachman, J. G O’Malley, P. M Johnston, L. D Schulenberg, J. E (2009). Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, and smoking among early adolescent girls in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 104, S42–S49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.06.007.
White, A., Castle, I.-J. P., Chen, C. M., Shirley, M., Roach, D., & Hingson, R. (2015). Converging patterns of alcohol use and related outcomes among females and males in the United States, 2002 to 2012. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 39, 1712–1726. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12815.
Wiles, N. J., Lingford-Hughes, A., Daniel, J., Hickman, M., Farrell, M., Macleod, J., & Lewis, G. (2007). Socio-economic status in childhood and later alcohol use: A systematic review. Addiction, 102, 1546–1563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01930.x.
Yusko, D. A., Buckman, J. F., White, H. R., & Pandina, R. J. (2008). Risk for excessive alcohol use and drinking-related problems in college student athletes. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 1546–1556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.07.010.
Zucker, R. A. (2008). Anticipating problem alcohol use developmentally from childhood into middle adulthood: What have we learned? Addiction, 103, 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02179.x.
Acknowledgements
We would like to extend our gratitude to H&H study participants for their continued contribution to the study.
Funding
This study was supported by grants R01-DA033296 and F31-DA039708 from National Institute on Drug Abuse. The content of this paper is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies. The funding agencies played no role in the study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit this article for publication.
Authors’ Contributions
J.O.L. conceptualized the study, guided data analyses, led the writing of the article, and coordinated drafting of the manuscript among co-authors; J.C. performed the statistical analyses; Y.Y. and M.S.B. contributed to data preparation for analyses and article preparation including literature search; R.K. contributed to data analyses and the interpretation of findings; A.M.H. conceptualized the study, contributed to interpretation of findings, and acquired the data. In addition, all authors have been involved in drafting the manuscript and revising it critically for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Data Sharing Declaration
This manuscript’s data will not be deposited.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All study procedures were approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of the University of Southern California.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.
Electronic supplementary material
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, J.O., Cho, J., Yoon, Y. et al. Developmental Pathways from Parental Socioeconomic Status to Adolescent Substance Use: Alternative and Complementary Reinforcement. J Youth Adolescence 47, 334–348 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0790-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0790-5