Skip to main content

Vesicoureteral Reflux and Renal Scarring

  • Reference work entry
Pediatric Nephrology

Abstract

Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the retrograde flow of urine from the bladder to the kidneys. This retrograde flow of urine, while the norm in some animals, is not normal in humans. VUR may be an isolated abnormality (primary VUR) or it may occur in association with other congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), including renal dysplasia, and obstructive uropathy or neurogenic bladder (secondary VUR).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 369.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Ransley PG. Vesicoureteric reflux: continuing surgical dilemma. Urology 1978;12(3):246–255.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Smellie J et al. Vesico-ureteric reflux and renal scarring. Kidney Int Suppl 1975;4:S65–S72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Wennerstrom M et al. Disappearance of vesicoureteral reflux in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998;152(9):879–883.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Dick PT, Feldman W. Routine diagnostic imaging for childhood urinary tract infections: a systematic overview. J Pediatr 1996;128(1):15–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Arant BS Jr. Medical management of mild and moderate vesicoureteral reflux: followup studies of infants and young children. A preliminary report of the Southwest Pediatric Nephrology Study Group. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1683–1687.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Rolleston GL, Shannon FT, Utley WL. Follow-up of vesico-ureteric reflux in the newborn. Kidney Int Suppl 1975;4:S59–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Rolleston GL, Shannon FT, Utley WL. Relationship of infantile vesicoureteric reflux to renal damage. Br Med J 1970;1(694):460–463.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Skoog SJ, Belman AB, Majd M. A nonsurgical approach to the management of primary vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1987;138(4 Pt 2):941–946.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Dwoskin JY, Perlmutter AD. Vesicoureteral reflux in children: a computerized review. J Urol 1973;109(5):888–890.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Scott JE. The management of ureteric reflux in children. Br J Urol 1977;49(2):109–118.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Snodgrass W. The impact of treated dysfunctional voiding on the nonsurgical management of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1998;160(5):1823–1825.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Drachman R, Valevici M, Vardy PA. Excretory urography and cystourethrography in the evaluation of children with urinary tract infection. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1984;23(5):265–267.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Askari A, Belman AB. Vesicoureteral reflux in black girls. J Urol 1982;127(4):747–748.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kunin CM. A ten-year study of bacteriuria in schoolgirls: final report of bacteriologic, urologic, and epidemiologic findings. J Infect Dis 1970;122(5):382–393.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Skoog SJ, Belman AB. Primary vesicoureteral reflux in the black child. Pediatrics 1991;87(4):538–543.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Chand DH et al. Incidence and severity of vesicoureteral reflux in children related to age, gender, race and diagnosis. J Urol 2003;170(4 Pt 2):1548–1550.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Shefelbine SE et al. Mutational analysis of the GDNF/RET-GDNFR alpha signaling complex in a kindred with vesicoureteral reflux. Hum Genet 1998;102(4):474–478.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Cunliffe HE et al. The prevalence of PAX2 mutations in patients with isolated colobomas or colobomas associated with urogenital anomalies. J Med Genet 1998;35(10):806–812.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Dixon JS et al. The structure and autonomic innervation of the vesico-ureteric junction in cases of primary ureteric reflux. Br J Urol 1998;81(1):146–151.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Lebowitz RL et al. International system of radiographic grading of vesicoureteric reflux. International Reflux Study in Children. Pediatr Radiol 1985;15(2):105–109.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhang G et al. Grading of reflux by radionuclide cystography. Clin Nucl Med 1987;12(2):106–109.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Siegel SR et al. Urinary infection in infants and preschool children. Five-year follow-up. Am J Dis Child 1980;134(4):369–372.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Woodard JR, Holden S. The prognostic significance of fever in childhood urinary infections: observations in 350 consecutive patients. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1976;15(11):1051–1054.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Chen JJ et al. Infant vesicoureteral reflux: a comparison between patients presenting with a prenatal diagnosis and those presenting with a urinary tract infection. Urology 2003;61(2):442–446. Discussion 446–447.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Koff SA, Wagner TT, Jayanthi VR. The relationship among dysfunctional elimination syndromes, primary vesicoureteral reflux and urinary tract infections in children. J Urol 1998;160(3 Pt 2):1019–1022.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Zerin JM, Ritchey ML, Chang AC. Incidental vesicoureteral reflux in neonates with antenatally detected hydronephrosis and other renal abnormalities. Radiology 1993;187(1):157–160.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Marra G et al. Congenital renal damage associated with primary vesicoureteral reflux detected prenatally in male infants. J Pediatr 1994;124(5 Pt 1):726–730.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Herndon CD et al. A multicenter outcomes analysis of patients with neonatal reflux presenting with prenatal hydronephrosis. J Urol 1999;162(3 Pt 2):1203–1208.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Upadhyay J et al. Natural history of neonatal reflux associated with prenatal hydronephrosis: long-term results of a prospective study. J Urol 2003;169(5):1837–1841. Discussion 1841 (author reply 1841).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Papachristou F et al. The characteristics and outcome of primary vesicoureteric reflux diagnosed in the first year of life. Int J Clin Pract 2006;60(7):829–834.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Yeung CK et al. The characteristics of primary vesico-ureteric reflux in male and female infants with pre-natal hydronephrosis. Br J Urol 1997;80(2):319–327.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Yeung CK et al. Urodynamic patterns in infants with normal lower urinary tracts or primary vesico-ureteric reflux. Br J Urol 1998;81(3):461–467.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Godley ML et al. The relationship between early renal status, and the resolution of vesico-ureteric reflux and bladder function at 16 months. BJU Int 2001;87(6):457–462.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Jerkins GR Noe HN. Familial vesicoureteral reflux: a prospective study. J Urol 1982;128(4):774–778.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Sirota L et al. Familial vesicoureteral reflux: a study of 16 families. Urol Radiol 1986;8(1):22–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Abbeele AD Van den et al. Vesicoureteral reflux in asymptomatic siblings of patients with known reflux: radionuclide cystography. Pediatrics 1987;79(1):147–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Noe HN. The long-term results of prospective sibling reflux screening. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1739–1742.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Noe HN et al. The transmission of vesicoureteral reflux from parent to child. J Urol 1992;148(6):1869–1871.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kenda RB, Zupancic Z. Ultrasound screening of older asymptomatic siblings of children with vesicoureteral reflux: is it beneficial? Pediatr Radiol 1994;24(1):14–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Noe HN. The current status of screening for vesicoureteral reflux. Pediatr Nephrol 1995;9(5):638–641.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Connolly LP et al. Natural history of vesicoureteral reflux in siblings. J Urol 1996;156(5):1805–1807.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Wan J et al. Sibling reflux: a dual center retrospective study. J Urol 1996;156(2 Pt 2):677–679.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Kenda RB et al. A follow-up study of vesico-ureteric reflux and renal scars in asymptomatic siblings of children with reflux. Nucl Med Commun 1997;18(9):827–831.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Parekh DJ et al. Outcome of sibling vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2002;167(1):283–284.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Yoneda A et al. Risk factors for the development of renal parenchymal damage in familial vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2002;168(4 Pt 2):1704–1707.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Houle AM et al. Impact of early screening for reflux in siblings on the detection of renal damage. BJU Int 2004;94(1):123–125.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Pirker ME, Colhoun E, Puri P. Renal scarring in familial vesicoureteral reflux: is prevention possible? J Urol 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1842–1846. Discussion 1846.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Shaikh N et al. Dysfunctional elimination syndrome: is it related to urinary tract infection or vesicoureteral reflux diagnosed early in life? Pediatrics 2003;112(5):1134–1137.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Norgaard JP et al. Standardization and definitions in lower urinary tract dysfunction in children. International Children’s Continence Society. Br J Urol 1998;81(Suppl 3):1–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. McKenna PH et al. Pelvic floor muscle retraining for pediatric voiding dysfunction using interactive computer games. J Urol 1999;162(3 Pt 2):1056–1062. Discussion 1062–1063.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Gool J, Van Tanagho EA. External sphincter activity and recurrent urinary tract infection in girls. Urology 1977;10(4):348–353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bloom DA, Faerber G, Bomalaski MD. Urinary incontinence in girls. Evaluation, treatment, and its place in the standard model of voiding dysfunctions in children. Urol Clin North Am 1995;22(3):521–538.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Seruca H. Vesicoureteral reflux and voiding dysfunction: a prospective study. J Urol 1989;142(2 Pt 2):494–498. Discussion 501.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Koff SA. Relationship between dysfunctional voiding and reflux. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1703–1705.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Gool JD van et al. Historical clues to the complex of dysfunctional voiding, urinary tract infection and vesicoureteral reflux. The International Reflux Study in Children. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1699–1702.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Greenfield SP, Wan J. The relationship between dysfunctional voiding and congenital vesicoureteral reflux. Curr Opin Urol 2000;10(6):607–610.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Glazier DB et al. Evaluation of the utility of video-urodynamics in children with urinary tract infection and voiding dysfunction. Br J Urol 1997;80(5):806–808.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Parekh DJ et al. The use of radiography, urodynamic studies and cystoscopy in the evaluation of voiding dysfunction. J Urol 2001;165(1):215–218.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Rushton HG. Wetting and functional voiding disorders. Urol Clin North Am 1995;22(1):75–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. O’Regan S, Yazbeck S, Schick E. Constipation, bladder instability, urinary tract infection syndrome. Clin Nephrol 1985;23(3):152–154.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Neumann PZ, DeDomenicoIJ, Nogrady MB, Constipation and urinary tract infection. Pediatrics 1973;52(2):241–245.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Chase JW, et al. Functional constipation in children. J Urol 2004;171(6 Pt 2):2641–2643.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Schulman SL et al. Comprehensive management of dysfunctional voiding. Pediatrics 1999;103(3):E31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Bailey RR, Lynn KL, Smith AH. Long-term followup of infants with gross vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1709–1711.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Lahdes-Vasama T, Niskanen K, Ronnholm K. Outcome of kidneys in patients treated for vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) during childhood. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21(9):2491–2497.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Tobenkin MI. Hereditary vesicoureteral reflux. South Med J 1964;57:139–147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Chapman CJ et al. Vesicoureteric reflux: segregation analysis. Am J Med Genet 1985;20(4):577–584.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. de Vargas A et al. A family study of vesicoureteric reflux. J Med Genet 1978;15(2):85–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pasch A et al. Multiple urinary tract malformations with likely recessive inheritance in a large Somalian kindred. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004;19(12):3172–3175.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Middleton GW, Howards SS, Gillenwater JY. Sex-linked familial reflux. J Urol 1975;114(1):36–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Winter RM, Baraister M. The London dysmorphology database. Oxford, Oxford University press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Williams G et al. Vesicoureteral reflux. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19(5):847–862.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Sanyanusin P et al. Mutation of the PAX2 gene in a family with optic nerve colobomas, renal anomalies and vesicoureteral reflux. Nat Genet 1995;9(4):358–364.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Lu W et al. Disruption of ROBO2 is associated with urinary tract anomalies and confers risk of vesicoureteral reflux. Am J Hum Genet 2007;80(4):616–632.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Eccles MR et al. Unravelling the genetics of vesicoureteric reflux: a common familial disorder. Hum Mol Genet 1996;5:Spec No:1425–1429.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Kelly H et al. Uroplakin III is not a major candidate gene for primary vesicoureteral reflux. Eur J Hum Genet 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Yoneda A et al. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor gene is not responsible for familial vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2002;168(3):1138–1141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Ozen S et al. Implications of certain genetic polymorphisms in scarring in vesicoureteric reflux: importance of ACE polymorphism. Am J Kidney Dis 1999;34(1):140–145.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Yoneda A, Oue T, Puri P. Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype distribution in familial vesicoureteral reflux. Pediatr Surg Int 2001;17(4):308–311.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Feather SA et al. Primary, nonsyndromic vesicoureteric reflux and its nephropathy is genetically heterogeneous, with a locus on chromosome 1. Am J Hum Genet 2000;66(4):1420–1425.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Conte ML et al. A genome search for primary vesicoureteral reflux shows further evidence for genetic heterogeneity. Pediatr Nephrol 2008;23(4):587–595.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Hutch JA. Theory of maturation of the intravesical ureter. J Urol 1961;86:534–538.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Silva JM et al. Predictive factors of resolution of primary vesico-ureteric reflux: a multivariate analysis. BJU Int 2006;97(5):1063–1068.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Prospective trial of operative versus non-operative treatment of severe vesicoureteric reflux in children: five years’ observation. Birmingham Reflux Study Group. Br Med J 1987;295(6592):237–241.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Tamminen-Mobius T et al. Cessation of vesicoureteral reflux for 5 years in infants and children allocated to medical treatment. The International Reflux Study in Children. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1662–1666.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Schwab CW Jr., et al. Spontaneous resolution of vesicoureteral reflux: a 15-year perspective. J Urol 2002;168(6):2594–2599.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Smellie JM et al. Outcome at 10 years of severe vesicoureteric reflux managed medically: Report of the International Reflux Study in Children. J Pediatr 2001;139(5):656–663.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Elder JS et al. Pediatric Vesicoureteral Reflux Guidelines Panel summary report on the management of primary vesicoureteral reflux in children. J Urol 1997;157(5):1846–1851.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Sjostrom S et al. Spontaneous resolution of high grade infantile vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2004;172(2):694–698. Discussion 699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Edwards D et al. Disappearance of vesicoureteric reflux during long-term prophylaxis of urinary tract infection in children. Br Med J 1977;2(6082):285–288.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Hodson CJ, Edwards D. Chronic pyelonephritis and vesico-ureteric reflex. Clin Radiol 1960;11:219–231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Bailey RR. The relationship of vesico-ureteric reflux to urinary tract infection and chronic pyelonephritis-reflux nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 1973;1(3):132–141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Majd M et al. Relationship among vesicoureteral reflux, P-fimbriated Escherichia coli, and acute pyelonephritis in children with febrile urinary tract infection. J Pediatr 1991;119(4):578–585.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Benador D et al. Cortical scintigraphy in the evaluation of renal parenchymal changes in children with pyelonephritis. J Pediatr 1994;124(1):17–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Jakobsson B, Soderlundh S, Berg U. Diagnostic significance of 99mtc-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy in urinary tract infection. Arch Dis Child 1992;67(11):1338–1342.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Benador D et al. Are younger children at highest risk of renal sequelae after pyelonephritis? Lancet 1997;349(9044):17–19.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Rushton HG et al. Renal scarring following reflux and nonreflux pyelonephritis in children: evaluation with 99mtechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphy. J Urol 1992;147(5):1327–1332.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Berg UB. Long-term followup of renal morphology and function in children with recurrent pyelonephritis. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1715–1720.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Jacobson SH et al. Long-term prognosis of post-infectious renal scarring in relation to radiological findings in childhood--a 27-year follow-up. Pediatr Nephrol 1992;6(1):19–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Medical versus surgical treatment of primary vesicoureteral reflux: report of the International Reflux Study Committee. Pediatrics 1981;67(3):392–400.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Smellie JM, Normand IC. Bacteriuria, reflux, and renal scarring. Arch Dis Child 1975;50(8):581–585.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Rolleston GL, Shannon FT, Utley WL. Relationship of infantile vesicoureteric reflux to renal damage. Br Med J 1970;1(694):460–463.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Bhatnagar V et al. The role of DMSA scans in evaluation of the correlation between urinary tract infection, vesicoureteric reflux, and renal scarring. Pediatr Surg Int 2002;18(2–3):128–134.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Bellinger MF, Duckett JW. Vesicoureteral reflux: a comparison of non-surgical and surgical management. Contrib Nephrol 1984;39:81–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Smellie JM et al. Development of new renal scars: a collaborative study. Br Med J 1985;290(6486):1957–1960.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Ozen HA, Whitaker RH. Does the severity of presentation in children with vesicoureteric reflux relate to the severity of the disease or the need for operation? Br J Urol 1987;60(2):110–112.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Ransley PG, Risdon RA. Renal papillary morphology in infants and young children. Urol Res 1975;3(3):111–113.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Verber IG, Meller ST. Serial 99mtc dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scans after urinary infections presenting before the age of 5 years. Arch Dis Child 1989;64(11):1533–1537.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Piepsz A et al. Five-year study of medical or surgical treatment in children with severe vesico-ureteral reflux dimercaptosuccinic acid findings. International Reflux Study Group in Europe. Eur J Pediatr 1998;157(9):753–758.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Ditchfield MR et al. Vesicoureteral reflux: an accurate predictor of acute pyelonephritis in childhood urinary tract infection? Radiology 1994;190(2):413–415.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Belloli G et al. [Long = term evaluation of renal damage in primary vesico-renal reflux after corrective surgery]. Pediatr Med Chir 1985;7(5):643–652.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Salvatierra O Jr., Tanagho EA. Reflux as a cause of end stage kidney disease: report of 32 cases. J Urol 1977;117(4):441–443.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Scott DJ et al. Renal function following surgical correction of vesico-ureteric reflux in childhood. Br J Urol 1986;58(2):119–124.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Yu TJ, Chen WF, Chen HY. Early versus late surgical management of fetal reflux nephropathy. J Urol 1997;157(4):1416–1418. Discussion 1418–1419.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Practice parameter: the diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of the initial urinary tract infection in febrile infants and young children. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Quality Improvement. Subcommittee on Urinary Tract Infection. Pediatrics 1999;103(4 Pt 1):843–852.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Miller T, Phillips S. Pyelonephritis: the relationship between infection, renal scarring, and antimicrobial therapy. Kidney Int 1981;19(5):654–662.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Jodal U. The natural history of bacteriuria in childhood. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1987;1(4):713–729.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Jakobsson B, Berg U, Svensson L. Renal scarring after acute pyelonephritis. Arch Dis Child 1994;70(2):111–115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Lomberg H et al. Virulence-associated traits in Escherichia coli causing first and recurrent episodes of urinary tract infection in children with or without vesicoureteral reflux. J Infect Dis 1984;150(4):561–569.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. de Man P et al. Bacterial attachment as a predictor of renal abnormalities in boys with urinary tract infection. J Pediatr 1989;115(6):915–922.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Hohenfellner K et al. ACE I/D gene polymorphism predicts renal damage in congenital uropathies. Pediatr Nephrol 1999;13(6):514–518.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Ditchfield MR et al. Risk factors in the development of early renal cortical defects in children with urinary tract infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162(6):1393–1397.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Wennerstrom M et al. Primary and acquired renal scarring in boys and girls with urinary tract infection. J Pediatr 2000;136(1):30–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Nguyen HT et al. 99 m Technetium dimercapto-succinic acid renal scintigraphy abnormalities in infants with sterile high grade vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2000;164(5):1674–1678. Discussion 1678–1679.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Hiraoka M et al. Congenitally small kidneys with reflux as a common cause of nephropathy in boys. Kidney Int 1997;52(3):811–816.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Risdon RA, Yeung CK, Ransley PG. Reflux nephropathy in children submitted to unilateral nephrectomy: a clinicopathological study. Clin Nephrol 1993;40(6):308–314.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Pennesi MT, Peratoner L, Bordugo A, Cattaneo A, Ronfani L, Minisini S. Ventura A and for the North East Italy Prophylaxis in VUR study group, Is antibiotic prophylaxis in children with vesicoureteral reflux effective in preventing pyelonephritis and renal scars? A randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2008;121(6):e1489–e1494.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Filly R et al. Development and progression of clubbing and scarring in children with recurrent urinary tract infections. Radiology 1974;113(1):145–153.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Goldraich NP, Goldraich IH. Update on dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scanning in children with urinary tract infection. Pediatr Nephrol 1995;9(2):221–226. Discussion 227.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Shindo S, Bernstein J, Arant BS, Jr. Evolution of renal segmental atrophy (Ask-Upmark kidney) in children with vesicoureteric reflux: radiographic and morphologic studies. J Pediatr 1983;102(6):847–854.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Rushton HG et al. Renal scarring following reflux and nonreflux pyelonephritis in children: evaluation with 99mtechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphy.[erratum appears in J Urol 1992 Sep;148(3):898]. J Urol 1992;147(5):1327–1332.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Jakobsson B, Berg U, Svensson L. Renal scarring after acute pyelonephritis. Arch Dis Child 1994;70(2):111–115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Roberts JA. Etiology and pathophysiology of pyelonephritis. Am J Kidney Dis 1991;17(1):1–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Roberts JA. Mechanisms of renal damage in chronic pyelonephritis (reflux nephropathy). Curr Top Pathol 1995;88:265–287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Roberts JA et al. Immunology of pyelonephritis in the primate model: live versus heat-killed bacteria. Kidney Int 1981;19(2):297–305.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. McCord JM. Oxygen-derived free radicals in postischemic tissue injury. N Engl J Med 1985;312(3):159–163.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Eddy AA. Interstitial macrophages as mediators of renal fibrosis. Exp Nephrol 1995;3(2):76–79.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Muller GA, Strutz FM. Renal fibroblast heterogeneity. Kidney Int Suppl 1995;50:S33–S36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Roberts JA. Pathogenesis of pyelonephritis. J Urol 1983;129(6):1102–1106.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Matsuoka H et al. Renal pathology in patients with reflux nephropathy. The turning point in irreversible renal disease. Eur Urol 1994;26(2):153–159.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Akaoka K, White RH, Raafat F. Glomerular morphometry in childhood reflux nephropathy, emphasizing the capillary changes. Kidney Int 1995;47(4):1108–1114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Torres VE et al. The progression of vesicoureteral reflux nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 1980;92(6):776–784.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Chantler C et al. 10 years’ experience with regular haemodialysis and renal transplantation. Arch Dis Child 1980;55(6):435–445.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Deleau J et al. Chronic renal failure in children: an epidemiological survey in Lorraine (France) 1975–1990. Pediatr Nephrol 1994;8(4):472–476.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. NAPRTCS 2006 Annual Report. 2006. 13–1 to 18.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Cotran RS. Nephrology Forum. Glomerulosclerosis in reflux nephropathy. Kidney Int 1982;21(3):528–534.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Bhathena DB et al. Focal and segmental glomerular sclerosis in reflux nephropathy. Am J Med 1980;68(6):886–892.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Coppo R et al. Glomerular permselectivity to macromolecules in reflux nephropathy: microalbuminuria during acute hyperfiltration due to aminoacid infusion. Clin Nephrol 1993;40(6):299–307.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Morita M et al. The glomerular changes in children with reflux nephropathy. J Pathol 1990;162(3):245–253.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Smellie JM et al. Childhood reflux and urinary infection: a follow-up of 10–41 years in 226 adults. Pediatr Nephrol 1998;12(9):727–736.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Wallace DM, Rothwell DL, Williams DI. The long-term follow-up of surgically treated vesicoureteric reflux. Br J Urol 1978;50(7):479–484.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Winterborn MH, France NE. Arterial changes associated with hydronephrosis in infants and children. Br J Urol 1972;44(1):96–104.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Stecker JF Jr., Read BP, Poutasse EF. Pediatric hypertension as a delayed sequela of reflux-induced chronic pyelonephritis. J Urol 1977;118(4):644–646.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Jodal U et al. Ten-year results of randomized treatment of children with severe vesicoureteral reflux. Final report of the International Reflux Study in Children. Pediatr Nephrol 2006;21(6):785–792.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Silva JM et al. Clinical course of 735 children and adolescents with primary vesicoureteral reflux. Pediatr Nephrol 2006;21(7):981–988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Roberts JP, Atwell JD. Vesicoureteric reflux and urinary calculi in children. Br J Urol 1989;64(1):10–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Jacobson SH et al. Development of hypertension and uraemia after pyelonephritis in childhood: 27 year follow up. BMJ 1989;299(6701):703–706.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Mansfield JT et al. Complications of pregnancy in women after childhood reimplantation for vesicoureteral reflux: an update with 25 years of followup. J Urol 1995;154(2 Pt 2):787–790.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Jungers P et al. Pregnancy in women with reflux nephropathy. Kidney Int 1996;50(2):593–599.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. el-Khatib M et al. Pregnancy-related complications in women with reflux nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 1994;41(1):50–55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Smellie JM et al. Childhood reflux and urinary infection: a follow-up of 10–41 years in 226 adults. Pediatr Nephrol 1998;12(9):727–736.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Cheung HS. Radiological imaging of urinary tract infection in Malaysian children--a private hospital experience. Australas Radiol 1992;36(1):23–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Rosenberg HK, Ilaslan H, Finkelstein MS. Work-up of urinary tract infection in infants and children. Ultrasound Q 2001;17(2):87–102.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Huang HP et al. Renal ultrasonography should be done routinely in children with first urinary tract infections. Urology 2008;71(3):439–443.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Greenfield SP, Afshani E. Vesicoureteral reflux in children with and without a history of urinary tract infection: a comparative analysis. Urology 1992;40(4):339–342.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Bomalaski MD, Ritchey ML, Bloom DA. What imaging studies are necessary to determine outcome after ureteroneocystostomy? J Urol 1997;158(3 Pt 2):1226–1228.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Radmayr C et al. Importance of the renal resistive index in children suffering from vesicoureteral reflux. Eur Urol 1999;36(1):75–79.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Oak SN, Kulkarni B, Chaubal N. Color flow Doppler sonography: a reliable alternative to voiding cystourethrogram in the diagnosis of vesicoureteral reflux in children. Urology 1999;53(6):1211–1214.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Lavocat MP et al. Imaging of pyelonephritis. Pediatr Radiol 1997;27(2):159–165.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Halevy R et al. Power Doppler ultrasonography in the diagnosis of acute childhood pyelonephritis. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19(9):987–991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Hitzel A et al. Color and power Doppler sonography versus DMSA scintigraphy in acute pyelonephritis and in prediction of renal scarring. J Nucl Med 2002;43(1):27–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Ahmed M et al. Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) renal scan in the evaluation of hypertension in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2008;23(3):435–438.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Ozcan C et al. Bladder ultrasound in the evaluation of the efficacy of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid injection for treatment of vesicoureteral reflux. J Clin Ultrasound 2007;35(7):357–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. McMann LP, Scherz HC, Kirsch AJ. Long-term preservation of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer implants after endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux in children: a sonographic volumetric analysis. J Urol 2007;177(1):316–320. Discussion 320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Sathapornwajana P et al. Timing of voiding cystourethrogram after urinary tract infection. Arch Dis Child 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  176. McDonald A et al. Voiding cystourethrograms and urinary tract infections: how long to wait? Pediatrics 2000;105(4):E50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Bisignani G, Decter RM. Voiding cystourethrography after uncomplicated ureteral reimplantation in children: is it necessary? J Urol 1997;158(3 Pt 2):1229–1231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Fairley KF, Roysmith J. The forgotten factor in the evaluation of vesicoureteric reflux. Med J Aust 1977;2(1):10–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Ekman H et al. High diuresis, a factor in preventing vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1966;95(4):511–515.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Zerin JM, Lebowitz RL. Catheter malposition during cystography: a cause of diagnostic errors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;153(2):363–367.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Merguerian PA, Corbett ST, Cravero J. Voiding ability using propofol sedation in children undergoing voiding cystourethrograms: a retrospective analysis. J Urol 2006;176(1):299–302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Jequier S, Jequier JC. Reliability of voiding cystourethrography to detect reflux. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;153(4):807–810.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Fettich JJ, Kenda RB. Cyclic direct radionuclide voiding cystography: increasing reliability in detecting vesicoureteral reflux in children. Pediatr Radiol 1992;22(5):337–338.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Papadopoulou F et al. Cyclic voiding cystourethrography: is vesicoureteral reflux missed with standard voiding cystourethrography? Eur Radiol 2002;12(3):666–670.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Arsanjani A, Alagiri M. Identification of filling versus voiding reflux as predictor of clinical outcome. Urology 2007;70(2):351–354.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Thompson M et al. Timing of follow-up voiding cystourethrogram in children with primary vesicoureteral reflux: development and application of a clinical algorithm. Pediatrics 2005;115(2):426–434.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Kleinman PK et al. Tailored low-dose fluoroscopic voiding cystourethrography for the reevaluation of vesicoureteral reflux in girls. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162(5):1151–1154. Discussion 1155–1156.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Cleveland RH et al. Voiding cystourethrography in children: value of digital fluoroscopy in reducing radiation dose. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;158(1):137–142.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Jakobsson B et al. 99mtechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scan in the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children: relation to clinical and radiological findings. Pediatr Nephrol 1992;6(4):328–334.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Rushton HG. The evaluation of acute pyelonephritis and renal scarring with technetium 99 m-dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scintigraphy: evolving concepts and future directions. Pediatric Nephrology 1997;11(1):108–120.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Rushton HG, Majd M. Pyelonephritis in male infants: how important is the foreskin? J Urol 1992;148(2 Pt 2):733–736. Discussion 737–738.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. MacKenzie JR. A review of renal scarring in children. Nucl Med Commun 1996;17(3):176–190.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Applegate KE et al. A prospective comparison of high-resolution planar, pinhole, and triple-detector SPECT for the detection of renal cortical defects. Clin Nucl Med 1997;22(10):673–678.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Yen TC et al. Identification of new renal scarring in repeated episodes of acute pyelonephritis using Tc-99 m DMSA renal SPECT. Clin Nucl Med 1998;23(12):828–831.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Elison BS et al. Comparison of DMSA scintigraphy with intravenous urography for the detection of renal scarring and its correlation with vesicoureteric reflux. Br J Urol 1992;69(3):294–302.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Majd M et al. Acute pyelonephritis: comparison of diagnosis with 99mtc-DMSA, SPECT, spiral CT, MR imaging, and power Doppler US in an experimental pig model. Radiology 2001;218(1):101–108.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Goldraich NP, Ramos OL, Goldraich IH. Urography versus DMSA scan in children with vesicoureteric reflux. Pediatric Nephrology 1989;3(1):1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Merrick MV, Uttley WS, Wild SR. The detection of pyelonephritic scarring in children by radioisotope imaging. Br J Radiol 1980;53(630):544–556.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Patel K et al. Intra- and interobserver variability in interpretation of DMSA scans using a set of standardized criteria. Pediatr Radiol 1993;23(7):506–509.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Goldraich NP, Goldraich IH. Update on dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scanning in children with urinary tract infection. Pediatr Nephrol 1995;9(2):221–226. Discussion 227.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Orellana P et al. Relationship between acute pyelonephritis, renal scarring, and vesicoureteral reflux. Results of a coordinated research project. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19(10):1122–1126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Stokland E et al. Imaging of renal scarring. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999;88(431):13–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Szlyk GR et al. Incidence of new renal parenchymal inflammatory changes following breakthrough urinary tract infection in patients with vesicoureteral reflux treated with antibiotic prophylaxis: evaluation by 99mtechnetium dimercapto-succinic acid renal scan. J Urol 2003;170(4 Pt 2):1566–1568. Discussion 1568–1569.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Preda I et al. Normal dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphy makes voiding cystourethrography unnecessary after urinary tract infection. J Pediatr 2007;151(6):581–584, 584 e1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Rubenstein JN et al. The PIC cystogram: a novel approach to identify “occult” vesicoureteral reflux in children with febrile urinary tract infections. J Urol 2003;169(6):2339–2343.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Tareen BU et al. Role of positional instillation of contrast cystography in the algorithm for evaluating children with confirmed pyelonephritis. Urology 2006;67(5):1055–1057. Discussion 1058–1059.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Kavanagh EC et al. Can MRI replace DMSA in the detection of renal parenchymal defects in children with urinary tract infections? Pediatr Radiol 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Chan YL et al. Potential utility of MRI in the evaluation of children at risk of renal scarring. Pediatr Radiol 1999;29(11):856–862.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Perez-Brayfield MR et al. A prospective study comparing ultrasound, nuclear scintigraphy and dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of hydronephrosis. J Urol 2003;170(4 Pt 1):1330–1334.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Lonergan GJ et al. Childhood pyelonephritis: comparison of gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging and renal cortical scintigraphy for diagnosis. Radiology 1998;207(2):377–384.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Sherman RL et al. N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase and beta 2-microglobulin. Their urinary excretion in patients with renal parenchymal disease. Arch Intern Med 1983;143(6):1183–1185.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Mutti A et al. Urinary excretion of brush-border antigen revealed by monoclonal antibody: early indicator of toxic nephropathy. Lancet 1985;2(8461):914–917.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Konda R et al. Urinary excretion of epidermal growth factor in children with reflux nephropathy. J Urol 1997;157(6):2282–2286.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Haraoka M et al. Elevated interleukin-8 levels in the urine of children with renal scarring and/or vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1996;155(2):678–680.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Ninan GK, Jutley RS, Eremin O. Urinary cytokines as markers of reflux nephropathy. J Urol 1999;162(5):1739–1742.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Komeyama T et al. Value of urinary endothelin-1 in patients with primary vesicoureteral reflux. Nephron 1993;65(4):537–540.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Walker RD, Garin EH. Urinary prostaglandin E2 in patients with vesicoureteral reflux. Child Nephrol Urol 1990;10(1):18–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Tomlinson PA. Low molecular weight proteins in children with renal disease. Pediatr Nephrol 1992;6(6):565–571.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Tomlinson PA et al. Differential excretion of urinary proteins in children with vesicoureteric reflux and reflux nephropathy. Pediatr Nephrol 1994;8(1):21–25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Miyakita H, Puri P. Urinary levels of N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase: a simple marker for predicting tubular damage in higher grades of vesicoureteric reflux. Eur Urol 1994;25(2):135–137.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Salvaggio E et al. [Beta 2 microglobulin in the diagnosis of reflux nephropathy in childhood]. Pediatr Med Chir 1988;10(1):83–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Quattrin T et al. Microalbuminuria in an adolescent cohort with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1995;34(1):12–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Bell FG, Wilkin TJ, Atwell JD. Microproteinuria in children with vesicoureteric reflux. Br J Urol 1986;58(6):605–609.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Lama G et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and reflux nephropathy: 2-year follow-up. Pediatr Nephrol 1997;11(6):714–718.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Ohtomo Y et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme gene polymorphism in primary vesicoureteral reflux. Pediatr Nephrol 2001;16(8):648–652.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Gruneberg RN et al. Bowel flora in urinary tract infection: effect of chemotherapy with special reference to cotrimoxazole. Kidney Int Suppl 1975;4:S122–S129.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Smellie JM et al. Five-year study of medical or surgical treatment in children with severe reflux: radiological renal findings. The International Reflux Study in Children. Pediatr Nephrol 1992;6(3):223–230.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Elder JS et al. Pediatric Vesicoureteral Reflux Guidelines Panel summary report on the management of primary vesicoureteral reflux in children. J Urol 1997;157(5):1846–1851.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Jodal U, Lindberg U. Guidelines for management of children with urinary tract infection and vesico-ureteric reflux. Recommendations from a Swedish state-of-the-art conference. Swedish Medical Research Council. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999;88(431):87–89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Tamminen-Mobius T et al. Cessation of vesicoureteral reflux for 5 years in infants and children allocated to medical treatment. The International Reflux Study in Children. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1662–1666.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Weiss R, Duckett J, Spitzer A. Results of a randomized clinical trial of medical versus surgical management of infants and children with grades III and IV primary vesicoureteral reflux (United States). The International Reflux Study in Children. J Urol 1992;148(5 Pt 2):1667–1673.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. McLorie GA et al. High grade vesicoureteral reflux: analysis of observational therapy. J Urol 1990;144(2 Pt 2):537–540. Discussion 545.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Mathews R, Naslund M, Docimo S. Cost analysis of the treatment of vesicoureteral reflux: a computer model. J Urol 2000;163(2):561–566. Discussion 566–567.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Benoit RM et al. The effect of dysfunctional voiding on the costs of treating vesicoureteral reflux: a computer model. J Urol 2002;168(5):2173–2176; discussion 2176.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Benoit RM et al. The cost-effectiveness of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer for the management of vesicoureteral reflux. 2. Reflux correction at the time of diagnosis as a substitute for traditional management. J Urol 2006;176(6 Pt 1):2649–2653. Discussion 2653.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Benoit RM, Peele PB, Docimo SG. The cost-effectiveness of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer for the management of vesicoureteral reflux. 1: substitution for surgical management. J Urol 2006;176(4 Pt 1):1588–1592. Discussion 1592.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Kobelt G et al. The cost-effectiveness of endoscopic injection of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer for vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2003;169(4):1480–1484. Discdussion 1484–1485.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Lendvay TS et al. The evolution of vesicoureteral reflux management in the era of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer: a pediatric health information system database study. J Urol 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1864–1867.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Shakil A et al. Clinical inquiries. Do antibiotics prevent recurrent UTI in children with anatomic abnormalities? J Fam Pract 2004;53(6):498–500.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Brendstrup L et al. Nitrofurantoin versus trimethoprim prophylaxis in recurrent urinary tract infection in children. A randomized, double-blind study. Acta Paediatr Scand 1990;79(12):1225–1234.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Sullivan TD, Ellerstein NS, Neter E. The effects of ampicillin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole on the periurethral flora of children with urinary tract infection. Infection 1980;8(Suppl 3): S339–S341.

    Google Scholar 

  242. Ellerstein NS et al. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and ampicillin in the treatment of acute urinary tract infections in children: a double-blind study. Pediatrics 1977;60(2):245–247.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Cooper CS et al. The outcome of stopping prophylactic antibiotics in older children with vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2000;163(1):269–272. Discussion 272–273.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Allen UD et al. Risk factors for resistance to “first-line” antimicrobials among urinary tract isolates of Escherichia coli in children. CMAJ 1999;160(10):1436–1440.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Karpman E, Kurzrock EA. Adverse reactions of nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in children. J Urol 2004;172(2):448–453.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Uhari M, Nuutinen M, Turtinen J. Adverse reactions in children during long-term antimicrobial therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;15(5):404–408.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Bollgren I. Antibacterial prophylaxis in children with urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999;88(431):48–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Hannerz L et al. Distribution of renal scars and intrarenal reflux in children with a past history of urinary tract infection. Acta Radiol 1987;28(4):443–446.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Conway PH et al. Recurrent urinary tract infections in children: risk factors and association with prophylactic antimicrobials. JAMA 2007;298(2):179–186.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Williams G, Lee A, Craig J. Antibiotics for the prevention of urinary tract infection in children: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Pediatr 2001;138(6):868–874.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Wheeler D et al. Antibiotics and surgery for vesicoureteric reflux: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Arch Dis Child 2003;88(8):688–694.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Gordon I et al. Primary vesicoureteric reflux as a predictor of renal damage in children hospitalized with urinary tract infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14(3):739–744.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. O’Regan S et al. Constipation a commonly unrecognized cause of enuresis. Am J Dis Child 1986;140(3):260–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Herndon CD, Decambre M, McKenna PH. Interactive computer games for treatment of pelvic floor dysfunction. J Urol 2001;166(5):1893–1898.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Upadhyay J et al. Use of the dysfunctional voiding symptom score to predict resolution of vesicoureteral reflux in children with voiding dysfunction. J Urol 2003;169(5):1842–1846. Discussion 1846 (author reply 1846).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Praga M et al. Long-term beneficial effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in patients with nephrotic proteinuria. Am J Kidney Dis 1992;20(3):240–248.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Litwin M et al. Add-on therapy with angiotensin II receptor 1 blocker in children with chronic kidney disease already treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Pediatr Nephrol 2006;21(11):1716–1722.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Risdon RA. The small scarred kidney in childhood. Pediatr Nephrol 1993;7(4):361–364.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Yu TJ, Chen WF. Surgical management of grades III and IV primary vesicoureteral reflux in children with and without acute pyelonephritis as breakthrough infections: a comparative analysis. J Urol 1997;157(4):1404–1406.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. O’Donnell B, Puri P. Technical refinements in endoscopic correction of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1988;140(5 Pt 2):1101–1102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Aaronson IA et al. Endoscopic treatment of reflux: migration of Teflon to the lungs and brain. Eur Urol 1993;23(3):394–399.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Chertin B, De Caluwe D, Puri P. Endoscopic treatment of primary grades IV and V vesicoureteral reflux in children with subureteral injection of polytetrafluoroethylene. J Urol 2003;169(5):1847–1849. Discussion 1849.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Chertin B, Puri P. Endoscopic management of vesicoureteral reflux: does it stand the test of time? Eur Urol 2002;42(6):598–606. Discussion 606.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Geiss S et al. Multicenter survey of endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux in children. Eur Urol 1990;17(4):328–329.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Kumar R, Puri P. Endoscopic correction of vesicoureteric reflux in failed reimplanted ureters. Eur Urol 1998;33(1):98–100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Kohri K et al. Treatment of vesicoureteral reflux by endoscopic injection of blood. Urol Int 1988;43(6):324–326.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Leonard MP et al. Endoscopic injection of glutaraldehyde cross-linked bovine dermal collagen for correction of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1991;145(1):115–119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Leonard MP et al. Endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux with collagen: preliminary report and cost analysis. J Urol 1996;155(5):1716–1720.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Atala A et al. Endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux with a self-detachable balloon system. J Urol 1992;148(2 Pt 2):724–727.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Atala A et al. Injectable alginate seeded with chondrocytes as a potential treatment for vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1993;150(2 Pt 2):745–747.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Atala A et al. Endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux with a chondrocyte-alginate suspension. J Urol 1994;152(2 Pt 2):641–643. Discussion 644.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Diamond DA, Caldamone AA. Endoscopic correction of vesicoureteral reflux in children using autologous chondrocytes: preliminary results. J Urol 1999;162(3 Pt 2):1185–1188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Smith DP, Kaplan WE, Oyasu R. Evaluation of polydimethylsiloxane as an alternative in the endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1994;152(4):1221–1224.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Oswald J et al. Prospective comparison and 1-year follow-up of a single endoscopic subureteral polydimethylsiloxane versus dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer injection for treatment of vesicoureteral reflux in children. Urology 2002;60(5):894–897. Discussion 898.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Stenberg A, Lackgren G. A new bioimplant for the endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux: experimental and short-term clinical results. J Urol 1995;154(2 Pt 2):800–803.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Lackgren G et al. Long-term followup of children treated with dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer for vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2001;166(5):1887–1892.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Stenberg AM et al. Lack of distant migration after injection of a 125iodine labeled dextranomer based implant into the rabbit bladder. J Urol 1997;158(5):1937–1941.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Kirsch AJ, Perez-Brayfield MR, Scherz HC. Minimally invasive treatment of vesicoureteral reflux with endoscopic injection of dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer: the Children’s Hospitals of Atlanta experience. J Urol 2003;170(1):211–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Kirsch AJ et al. The modified sting procedure to correct vesicoureteral reflux: improved results with submucosal implantation within the intramural ureter. J Urol 2004;171(6 Pt 1):2413–2416.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Perez-Brayfield M et al. Endoscopic treatment with dextranomer/hyaluronic acid for complex cases of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2004;172(4 Pt 2):1614–1616.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Hensle TW et al. Part 2: Examining pediatric vesicoureteral reflux: a real-world evaluation of treatment patterns and outcomes. Curr Med Res Opin 2007;23(Suppl 4): S7–S13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Hensle TW, Grogg AL. Part 1: Vesicoureteral reflux treatment: the past, present, and future. Curr Med Res Opin 2007;23(Suppl 4): S1–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Elder JS et al. Part 3: Endoscopic injection versus antibiotic prophylaxis in the reduction of urinary tract infections in patients with vesicoureteral reflux. Curr Med Res Opin 2007;23(Suppl 4): p. S15–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Elmore JM et al. Incidence of Urinary Tract Infections in Children After Successful Ureteral Reimplantation Versus Endoscopic Dextranomer/Hyaluronic Acid Implantation. J Urol 2008;179(6):2364–2368.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Aaronson DS et al. Relative contraindication to endoscopic subureteral injection for vesicoureteral reflux: congenital refluxing megaureter with distal aperistaltic segment. Urology 2008;71(4):616–619. Discussion 619–620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Elder JS et al. Endoscopic therapy for vesicoureteral reflux: a meta-analysis. I. Reflux resolution and urinary tract infection. J Urol 2006;175(2):716–722.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Elmore JM et al. New contralateral vesicoureteral reflux following dextranomer/hyaluronic Acid implantation: incidence and identification of a high risk group. J Urol 2006;175(3 Pt 1):1097–1100. Discussion 1100–1101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Menezes M et al. New contralateral vesicoureteral reflux after endoscopic correction of unilateral reflux – is routine contralateral injection indicated at initial treatment? J Urol 2007;178(4 Pt 2):1711–1713.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Elmore JM et al. Salvage extravesical ureteral reimplantation after failed endoscopic surgery for vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2006;176(3):1158–1160.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Vandersteen DR et al. Postoperative ureteral obstruction after subureteral injection of dextranomer/hyaluronic Acid copolymer. J Urol 2006;176(4 Pt 1):1593–1595.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Nelson CP, Chow JS. Dextranomer/hyaluronic acid copolymer (Deflux) implants mimicking distal ureteral calculi on CT. Pediatr Radiol 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  292. Gil-Vernet JM. A new technique for surgical correction of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1984;131(3):456–458.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Gatti JM et al. Percutaneous endoscopic trigonoplasty in children: long-term outcomes and modifications in technique. J Endourol 1999;13(8):581–584.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Chen HW et al. Minimally invasive extravesical ureteral reimplantation for vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 2002;167(4):1821–1823.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Lakshmanan Y, Fung LC. Laparoscopic extravesicular ureteral reimplantation for vesicoureteral reflux: recent technical advances. J Endourol 2000;14(7):589–593. Discussion 593–594.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Gill IS et al. Laparoscopic cross-trigonal Cohen ureteroneocystostomy: novel technique. J Urol 2001;166(5):1811–1814.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Yeung CK, Sihoe JD, Borzi PA. Endoscopic cross-trigonal ureteral reimplantation under carbon dioxide bladder insufflation: a novel technique. J Endourol 2005;19(3):295–299.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Shu T, Cisek LJ Jr., Moore RG. Laparoscopic extravesical reimplantation for postpubertal vesicoureteral reflux. J Endourol 2004;18(5):441–446.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Kutikov A et al. Initial experience with laparoscopic transvesical ureteral reimplantation at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. J Urol 2006;176(5):2222–2225. Discussion 2225–2226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Kaplan WE, Firlit CF. Management of reflux in the myelodysplastic child. J Urol 1983;129(6):1195–1197.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Kennelly MJ et al. Outcome analysis of bilateral Cohen cross-trigonal ureteroneocystostomy. Urology 1995;46(3):393–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Minevich E et al. Voiding dysfunction after bilateral extravesical detrusorrhaphy. J Urol 1998;160(3 Pt 2):1004–1006. Discussion 1038.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. David S, Kelly C, Poppas DP. Nerve sparing extravesical repair of bilateral vesicoureteral reflux: description of technique and evaluation of urinary retention. J Urol 2004;172(4 Pt 2):1617–1620. Discussion 1620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Sheu JC et al. Results of surgery for vesicoureteral reflux in children: 6 years’ experience in an Asian country. Pediatr Surg Int 1998;13(2–3):138–140.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Hoenig DM et al. Contralateral reflux after unilateral ureteral reimplantation. J Urol 1996;156(1):196–197.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Garin EH et al. Clinical significance of primary vesicoureteral reflux and urinary antibiotic prophylaxis after acute pyelonephritis: a multicenter, randomized, controlled study. Pediatrics 2006;117(3):626–632.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Roussey-Kesler G et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection in children with low grade vesicoureteral reflux: results from a prospective randomized study. J Urol 2008;179(2):674–679. Discussion 679.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this entry

Cite this entry

Mattoo, T.K., Mathews, R. (2009). Vesicoureteral Reflux and Renal Scarring. In: Avner, E., Harmon, W., Niaudet, P., Yoshikawa, N. (eds) Pediatric Nephrology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76341-3_55

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76341-3_55

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-76327-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-76341-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics