Abstract
If the diagnosis of influenza in the individual patient is at times ambiguous, the identification of influenza epidemics is not. In the north temperate zone, the abrupt appearance of febrile respiratory disease affecting adults as well as children in the early winter can be assumed to be influenza pending virologic con-firmation. Characteristically, sporadic cases are seen in late November and December; then, following the Christmas holidays, the disease becomes epidemic. School and industrial absenteeism and clinic visits increase, and somewhat later excess mortality related to pneumonia occurs.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aho, K., Pyhälä, R., and Visakorpi, R., 1980, ABO associated genetic determinant in H1N1 influenza, Tissue Antigens 16:310–313.
Andrewes, C. H., 1951, Epidemiology of influenza in the light of the 1951 outbreak, Proc. R. Soc. Med. 44:803–804.
Assaad, F., Brès, P., and Delon, P., 1977, Surveillance internationale de la grippe, Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publ. 25:441–445.
Baine, W. B., Luby, J. P., and Martin, S. M., 1980, Severe illness with influenza B, Am. J. Med. 68:181.
Barb, K., and Takatsy, G. Y., 1973, Unusual features of the 1971 influenza epidemic in Hungary and the antigen analysis of the isolates by a serum adsorption test, Bull. WHO 49:21–24.
Barker, W. H., and Mullooly, J. P., 1980, Impact of epidemic type A influenza in a defined adult population, Am. J. Epidemiol. 112:798–813.
Barker, W. H., and Mullooly, J. P., 1981, Underestimation of the role of pneumonia and influenza in causing excess mortality, Am. J. Public Health 71:643–645.
Barker, W. H., and Mullooly, J. P., 1982, Re: “A study of excess mortality during influenza epidemics in the United States, 1968–1976,” Am. J. Epidemiol. 115:479–480.
Baroyan, O. V., Rvachev, L. A., Basilevsky, U. V., et al., 1971, Adv. Appl. Probabil. 3:224–226.
Bean, W. J., Jr., Cox, N. J., and Kendal, A. P., 1980, Recombination of human influenza A viruses in nature, Nature 284:638–640.
Bean, B., Rhame, F. S., Hughes R. S., et al., 1983, Influenza B: Hospital activity during a community epidemic, Diag. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 1:177–183.
Beare, A. S., Bynoe, M. L., and Tyrrell, D. A. J., 1968, Investigation into the attenuation of influenza viruses by serial passage, Br. Med. J. 4:482–484.
Belbin, D. J., and Smithson, W. H., 1979, “Red ’flu”: A study of an epidemic in a girls’ boarding school in February 1978, J. R. Coll. Gen. Practit. 29:151–154.
Beveridge, W. I. B., 1977, Influenza: The Last Great Plague. An Unfinished Story of Discovery. Heineman, London.
Beyer, W. E. P., and Masurel, N., 1985, Antigenic heterogeneity among influenza A(H3N2) field isolates during an outbreak in 1982/83, estimated by methods of numerical taxonomy, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 94:97–109.
British Medical Journal ,1974, Epidemiology. Seasonal variations in influenza, Br. Med. J. 2:511.
Buchan, K. A., and Reid, D., 1972, Epidemiological aspects of influenza in Lewis, Health Bull. 30:183–186.
Buonagurio, D. A., Nakada, S., Desselberger, U., et al. 1985, Noncumulative sequence changes in the hemagglutinin genes of influenza C virus isolates, Virology 146:221–232.
Carey, D. L., Dunn, F. L., Robinson, R. Q., 1958, Communitywide epidemic of Asian Strain influenza. Clinical and subclinical illness among school children, J.A.M.A. 167:1459–1463.
Centers for Disease Control, 1985, Influenza-United States, 1984–1985 season, Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 34:440–443.
Choi, K., and Thacker, S. G., 1981, An evaluation of influenza mortality surveillance, 1962–1979. II. Percentage of pneumonia and influenza deaths as an indicator of influenza activity, Am. J. Epidemiol. 113:227–235.
Choi, K., and Thacker, S. G., 1982, Mortality during influenza epidemics in the United States, 1967–1978, Am. J. Public Health. 72:1280–1283.
Clarke, S. K. R., Heath, R. B., Sutton, R. N. P., et al., 1958, Serological studies with Asian strain influenza A, Lancet 1:814–818.
Clifford, R. E., Smith, J. W. G., Tillett, H. E., 1977, Excess mortality associated with influenza in England and Wales, Int. J. Epidemiol. 6:115–128.
Coates, D. M., Husseini, R. H., Rushton, D. I., et al., 1984, The role of lung development in the age-related susceptibility of ferrets to influenza virus, Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 65:543–547.
Collins, S. D., Frost, W. H., Gover, M., et al., 1930, Mortality from influenza and pneumonia in 50 large cities of the United States, 1910–1929, Public Health Rep. 45:2277–2329.
Cox, N. J., Bai, Z. S., and Kendal, A. P., 1983, Laboratory-based surveillance of influenza A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) viruses in 1980–81: Antigenic and genomic analyses, Bull. WHO 61:143–152.
Crosby, A. W., 1976, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 ,Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
Dalton, K., 1977, The Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy ,Heinemann Medical Books, London.
Daniels, R. S., Douglas, A. R., Skehel, J. J., et al., 1985, Antigenic and amino acid sequence analyses of influenza viruses of the H1N1 subtype isolated between 1982 and 1984, Bull. WHO 63:273–277.
Davey, M. L., and Reid, D., 1972, Relationship of air temperature to outbreaks of influenza, Br. J. Prev. Soc. Med. 26:28–32.
Davies, J. R., Grilli, E. A., and Smith, A. J., 1984, Influenza A: Infection and reinfection, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 92:125–127.
Dingle, J. H., Badger, G. F., and Jordan, W. S., 1964, Illness in the Home ,The Press of Western Reserve University, Cleveland.
Dowdle, W. R., Coleman, M. T., and Gregg, M. B., 1974, Natural history of influenza type A in the United States, 1957–1972, Prog. Med. Virol. 17:91–135.
Dunn, F. L., 1958, Pandemic influenza in 1957. Review of international spread of new Asian strain, J.A.M.A. 166:1140–1148.
Dykes, A. C., Cherry, J. D., and Nolan, C. E., 1980, A clinical, epidemiologic, serologic, and virologic study of influenza C virus infection, Arch. Intern. Med. 140:1295–1298.
Effros, R. B., and Walford, R. L., 1983, The immune response of aged mice to influenza: Diminished T-cell proliferation, interleukin 2 production and cytotoxicity, Cell. Immunol. 81:298–305.
Eickhoff, T. C., Sherman, I. L., and Serfling, R. E., 1961, Excess mortality associated with epidemic influenza, J.A.M.A. 176:776.
Elliott, R. M., Guo, Y., and Desselberger, U., 1984, Polypeptide synthesis in MDCK cells infected with human and pig influenza C viruses,J. Gen. Virol. 65:1873–1880, 1984.
Elveback, L. R., Fox, J. P., Ackerman, E., et al., 1976, An influenza simulation model for immunization studies, Am. J. Epidemiol. 103:152–165.
Evans, A. S., Shepard, K., and Richards, V., 1970, Blood-groups and influenza, Lancet 2:1364.
Farr, W., 1885, Vital Statistics ,Office of the Sanitary Institute, London, p. 330.
Finklea, J. F., Sandifer, S. H., and Smith, D. D., 1969, Cigarette smoking and epidemic influenza, Am. J. Epidemiol. 90:390–399.
Fox, J. P., and Hall, C. E., 1980, Viruses in Families ,PSG Publishing, Littleton, MA.
Fox, J. P., and Kilbourne, E. D., 1973, Epidemiology of influenza-Summary of influenza workshop IV, J. Infect. Dis. 128:361–386.
Fox, J. P., Hall, C. E., Cooney, M. K., et al., 1982, Influenzavirus infections in Seattle families, 1975–1979. I. Study design, methods and the occurrence of infections by time and age, Am. J. Epidemiol. 116:212–227.
Foy, H. M., Hall, C., Cooney, M.K., et al., 1979, Influenza surveillance by age and target group, Am. J. Epidemiol. 109:582–587.
Francis, T., Jr., 1958, Influenza. Epidemiology. Influenza as a military problem, in: Preventive Medicine in World War II. Vol. IV. Communicable Diseases (J. B. Coates, Jr., E. D. Hoff, and P. M. Hoff, eds.), The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, Washington, pp. 85–128.
Frank, A. L., Taber, L. H., and Wells, J. M., 1983, Individuals infected with two subtypes of influenza A virus in the same season, J. Infect. Dis. 147: 120–124.
Frank, A. L., Taber, L. H., Glezen, W. P., et al., 1979, Reinfection with influenza A (H3N2) virus in young children and their families, J. Infect. Dis. 140:829–835.
Ghendon, Y., Klimov. A., Gorodkova, N., et al., 1981, Genome analysis of influenza A virus strains isolated during an epidemic of 1979–1980, J. Gen. Virol. 56:303–313.
Glezen, W. P., 1982, Serious morbidity and mortality associated with influenza epidemics, Epidemiol. Rev. 4:25–44.
Glezen, W. P., and Couch, R. B., 1978, Interpandemic influenza in the Houston area, 1974–76, N. Engl. J. Med. 298:587–592.
Glezen, W. P., Couch, R. B., Six, H. R. 1982a, The influenza herald wave, Am. J. Epidemiol. 116:589–598.
Glezen, W. P., Payne, A. A., Snyder, D. N., et al., 1982b, Mortality and influenza, J. Infect. Dis. 146:313–321.
Glezen, W. P., Six, H. R., Perrotta, D. M., et al., 1984, Epidemics and their causative viruses-Community experience, in: The Molecular Virology and Epidemiology of Influenza (C. Stuart-Harris and C. W. Potter, eds.), Academic Press, pp. 17–38.
Goldstein, I. F., and Block, G., 1976, A method for surveillance of influenza epidemics, Am. J. Public Health 66:992–993.
Guo, Y., and Desselberger, U., 1984, Genome analysis of influenza C viruses isolated in 1981/82 from pigs in China, J. Gen. Virol. 65:1857–1872.
Haaheim, L. R., 1980, Surveillance of the antibody status to current influenza strains in the Norwegian population. 2: Antibodies to the A/USSR/90/77(HlNl) virus in the various age groups after the second epidemic wave, Natl. Inst. Public Health Ann. 3:49–56.
Haesebrouck, F., Biront, P., Pensaert, M. B., et al., 1985, Epizootics of respiratory tract disease in swine in Belgium due to H3N2 influenza virus and experimental reproduction of disease, Am J. Vet. Res. 46: 1926–1928.
Hall, C. E., Cooney, M. K., and Fox, J. P., 1973, The Seattle virus watch. IV. Comparative epidemiologic observations of infections with influenza A and B viruses, 1965–1969, in families with young children, Am. J. Epidemiol. 98:365–380.
Hall, W. N., Goodman, R. A., Noble, G. R., et al., 1981, An outbreak of influenza B in an elderly population,J. Infect. Dis. 144:297–302.
Hayslett, J., McCarroll, J., Brady, E., et al., 1962, Endemic influenza. I. Serologic evidence of continuing and subclinical infection in disparate populations in the post-pandemic period, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 85: 1–8.
Hemmes, J. H., Winkler, K. C., and Kool, S. M., 1960, Virus survival as a seasonal factor in influenza and poliomyelitis, Nature 188:430–431.
Homma, M., 1985, Epidemiological characteristics of type C influenza, J. Cell. Biochem. (Suppl.) 9C:278.
Hope-Simpson, R. E., 1981, The role of season in the epidemiology of influenza, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 86:35–47.
Hoskins, T. W., Davies, J. R., Smith, A. J., et al., 1979, Assessment of inactivated influenza A vaccine after three outbreaks of influenza A at Christ’s Hospital, Lancet 1:33–35.
Housworth, J., and Langmuir, A. D., 1974, Excess mortality from epidemic influenza, 1957–1966, Am. J. Epidemiol. 100:40–48.
Isaacs, A., Hart, R. J. C., and Law, V. G., 1962, Influenza viruses, 1957–1960, Bull. WHO 26:253–259.
Jennings, L. C., and Miles, J. A. R., 1978, A study of acute respiratory disease in the community of Port Chalmers. II. Influenza A/Port Chalmers/1/73: intrafamilial spread and the effect of antibodies to the surface antigens,J. Hyg. (Camb.) 81:67–75.
Jensen, K. E., 1957, Immunologic significance of antigenic differences among strains of influenza A isolated during the same epidemic, J. Immunol. 78:373–379.
Kark, J. D., Lebiush, M., and Rannon, L., 1982, Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for epidemic A(HiNi) influenza in young men, N. Engl. J. Med. 307:1042–1046.
Kavet, J., 1977, A perspective on the significance of pandemic influenza, Am. J. Public Health. 67:1063–1070.
Kawamura, H., Tashiro, M., Kitame, F., et al., 1986, Genetic variation among human strains of influenza C virus isolated in Japan, Virus Res. 4:275–288.
Kawaoka, Y., and Webster, R. G., 1985, Evolution of the A/chicken/PennsylvaniaF83 (H5N2) influenza virus, Virology 146:130–137.
Kendal, A. P., Schieble, J., Cooney, M. K., et al., 1978, Co-circulation of two influenza A (H3N2) antigenic variants detected by virus surveillance in individual communities, Am. J. Epidemiol. 108:308–311.
Kendal, A. P., Joseph, J. M., Kobayashi, G., et al., 1979, Laboratory-based surveillance of influenza virus in the United States during the winter of 1977–1978, Am. J. Epidemiol. 110:449–461.
Kermack, W. O., and McKendrick, A. G., et al., 1927, A contribution to the mathematical theory of epidemics, Proc. R. Soc. Al 15:700–721.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1961, Influenza-the cryptic killer, Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 83:265–266.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1963, Infections primarily of the respiratory tract, in: Preventive Medicine and Public Health (W. G. Smillie and E. D. Kilbourne, eds.), Macmillan, New York, p. 192.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1973, The molecular epidemiology of influenza. J. Infect. Dis. 127:478–487.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1975, Epidemiology of influenza, in: The Influenza Viruses and Influenza (E. D. Kilbourne, ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 483–538.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1979, Molecular epidemiology-influenza as archetype, Harvey Lect. 73:225–258.
Kilbourne, E. D., 1980, Influenza: Viral determinants of the pathogenicity and epidemicity of an invariant disease of variable occurrence, Phil Trans. R. Soc. Lond. [Biol] 288:291–297.
Kilbourne, E. D., Anderson, H. C., and Horsfall, F. L., Jr., 1951, Concurrent infection with influenza A and B viruses in a single epidemic, J. Immunol 67:547–558.
Klimov, A. I., and Ghendon, Y. Z., 1981, Genome analysis of H1N1 influenza virus strains isolated in the U.S.S.R. during an epidemic in 1961–1962, Arch. Virol. 70:225–232.
Knox, J. D. E., and Anderson, R. A., 1982, Influenza-like illness: A monitoring system, Ecology Dis. 1:87–91.
LaMontagne, J. R., 1980, Summary of a workshop on influenza B viruses and Reye’s syndrome, J. Infect. Dis. 142:452–465.
Langmuir, A. D., 1961, Epidemiology of Asian influenza. With special emphasis on the United States, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 83:2–14.
Layde, P. M., Engelberg, A. L., Dobbs, H. I., et al., 1980, Outbreak of influenza A/USSR/77 at Marquette University, J. Infect. Dis. 142:347–352.
Lebiush, M., Rannon, L., and Kark, J. D., 1981, The relationship between epidemic influenza A(HiNi) and ABO blood groups, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 87:139–146.
Levine, M. M., Togo, Y., and Wald, E. R., 1974, Practicability of influenza surveillance by virus culture of children, Am. J. Epidemiol. 100:272–276.
Lim, K. A., Smith, A., Hale, J. H., et al., 1957, Influenza outbreak in Singapore, Lancet 2:791–796.
Longini, I. M., Jr., Monto, A. S., and Koopman, J., 1984a, Statistical procedures for estimating the community probability of illness in family studies: Rhinovirus and influenza, Int. J. Epidemiol. 13:99–106.
Longini, I. M., Jr., Seaholm, S. K., Ackerman, E., et al., 1984b, Simulation studies of influenza epidemics: Assessement of parameter estimation and sensitivity, Int. J. Epidemiol. 13:496–501.
Lvov, D. K., Zhdanov, V. M., Sadykhova, F., et al., 1983, Isolation of a natural recombinant of influenza A virus (H1N3) from a sick child, Lancet 2:1246–1247.
Macfarlare, A., 1977, Daily mortality and environment in English conurbations. I. Air pollution, low temperature, and influenza in Greater London, Br. J. Prev. Soc. Med. 31:54–61.
MacKenzie, J. S., and Fimmel, P. J., 1978, The effect of ABO blood groups on the incidence of epidemic influenza and on the response to live attenuated and detergent split influenza virus vaccines, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 80:21–30.
MacKenzie, J. S., MacKenzie, I. H., and Holt, P. G., 1976, The effect of cigarette smoking on susceptibility to epidemic influenza and on serological responses to live attenuated and killed subunit influenza vaccines, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 77:409–417.
Mann, P. G., Pereira, M. S., Smith, J. W. G., et al., 1981, A five-year study of influenza in families, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 87:191–200.
Marine, W. M., McGowan, J. E., Jr., and Thomas, J. E., 1976, Influenza detection: A prospective comparison of surveillance methods and analysis of isolates, Am. J. Epidemiol. 104:248–255.
Mathur, U., Bentley, D. W., Hall, C. B., et al., 1981, Influenza A/Brazil/78(H1N1) infection in the elderly, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 123:633–635.
Maxwell, E. S., Ward, T. G., and Van Metre, T. E., Jr., 1949, The relation of influenza virus and bacteria in the etiology of pneumonia, J. Clin. Invest. ,28:307–318.
Miller, D. L., Reid, D., Diamond, J. R., et al., 1973, Hong Kong influenza in the Royal Air Force 1968–70, J. Hyg. (Camb.J 71:535–547.
Montefiore, D., Drozdov, S. G., Kafuko, G. W., et al., 1970, Influenza in East Africa, 1969–70, Bull. WHO 43:269–273.
Monto, A. S., and Kioumehr, F., 1975, The Tecumseh study of respiratory illness. IX. Occurrence of influenza in the community, 1966–1971, Am. J. Epidemiol. 102:553–563.
Monto, A. S., and Maassab, H. F., 1981, Serologic responses to nonprevalent influenza A viruses during intercyclic periods, Am. J. Epidemiol. 113:236–244.
Moore, B. W., Webster, R. G., Bean, W. J., et al., 1981, Reappearance in 1979 of a 1968 Hong Konglike influenza virus, Virology 109:219–222.
Moser, M. R., Bender, T. R., Margolis, H. S., et al., 1979, An outbreak of influenza aboard a commercial airliner, Am. J. Epidemiol. 110:1–6.
Mulder, J., and Masurel, N., 1958, Pre-epidemic antibody against 1957 strain of Asiatic influenza, Lancet 2:810–814.
Nakada, S., Creager, R. S., Krystal, M., et al., 1984a, Influenza C virus hemagglutinin: Comparison with influenza A and B virus hemagglutinins, J. Virol. 50:118–124.
Nakada, S., Creager, R. S., Krystal, M., et al., 1984b, Complete nucleotide sequence of the influenza C/California/78 virus nucleoprotein gene, Virus Res. 1:433–441.
Nakajima, K., Desselberger, U., and Palese, P., 1978, Recent human influenza A (H1N1) viruses are closely related genetically to strains isolated in 1950, Nature 274:334–339.
Nakajima, K., Nakajima, S., Nerome, K., et al., 1979, Genetic relatedness of some 1978–1979 influenza H1N1 strains to 1953 H1N1 strain, Virology 99:423–426.
Napiorkowski, P. A., and Black, F. L., 1974, Influenza A in an isolated population in the Amazon, Lancet 2:1390–1391.
Nishikawa, F., and Sugiyama, T., 1983, Direct isolation of H1N2 recombinant virus from a throat swab of a patient simultaneously infected with H1N1 and H3N2 influenza A viruses, J. Clin. Microbiol 18:425–427.
Nolan, T. F., Goodman, R. A., Hinman, A. R., et al., 1980, Morbidity and mortality associated with influenza B in the United States, 1979–1980: A report from the Center for Disease Control, J. Infect. Dis. 142:360–362.
Olson, J. G., and Irving, G. S., 1979, An explosive outbreak of influenza caused by A/USSR/77-like virus on a United States naval ship, Mil. Med. 144:743–745.
Palese, P., and Young, J. F., 1983, Molecular epidemiology of influenza, in: Influenza Virus Genetics (P. Palese and D. W. Kingsbury, eds.), Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 321–336.
Palese, P., Elliott, R. M., Baez, M., et al., 1981, Genome diversity among influenza A, B and C viruses and genetic structure of RNA 7 and RNA 8 of influenza A viruses, in: Genetic Variation among Influenza Viruses (D. P. Nayak, ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 127–140.
Pereira, M. S., and Chakraverty, P., 1977, The laboratory surveillance of influenza epidemics in the United Kingdom 1968–1976, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 79:77.
Pereira, M. S., and Chakraverty, P., 1982, Influenza in the United Kingdom 1977–1981, J. Hyg, (Camb.) 88:501–512.
Pereira, M., Assaad, F. A., and Delon, P. J., 1978, Influenza surveillance, Bull. WHO 56:193–203.
Peretjagina, N. S., Antonova, I. V., and Urbah, V. J., 1977, The upper tolerance limits of nonepidemic daily morbidity for influenza and other acute respiratory diseases in the epidemic season, Bull. WHO 55:761–763.
Peterson, D., Andrews, J. S., Jr., Levy, B. S., et al., 1979, An effective school-based influenza surveillance system, Public Health Rep. 94:88–92.
Pfeifer, J. B., and Compans, R. W., 1984, Structure of the influenza C glycoprotein gene as determined from cloned DNA, Virus Res. 1:281–296.
Plesnik, V., Heinz, F., Matuska, J., et al., 1978, Economic losses in influenza epidemics, Cas. Lek. Cesk. 117:53–57.
Poe, G. S., and Massey, J. T., 1977, Estimating influenza cases and vaccinations by means of weekly rapid reporting system. Methodological considerations and results obtained in the U.S. Health Interview Survey, Public Health. Rep. 92:299–306.
Pons, V. G., Canter, J., and Dolin, R., 1980, Influenza A/USSR/77 (H1N1) on a university campus, Am. J. Epidemiol. 111:23–30.
Potter, C. W., and Schild, G. C., 1967, The incidence of HI antibody to influenza virus A2/Singa-pore/1/57 in individuals of blood groups A and O, J Immunol. 98:1320–1325.
Pyhälä, R., and Aho, K., 1982, Seroepidemiology of H1N1 influenza: The range of the affected population is widening, Med. Biol. 60:328–332.
Pyhälä, R., Aho, K., and Visakorpi, R., 1979, Seroepidemiology of H1N1 influenza: Striking differences in the attack rate among young people, Acta Pathol Microbiol. Scand. B87:161–164.
Retailliau, H. F., Storch, G. A., Curtis, A. C., et al., 1979, The epidemiology of influenza B in a rural setting in 1977, Am. J. Epidemiol. 109:639–649.
Rosenstock, I. M., Hochbaum, G. M., Leventhal, H., et al., 1960, The Impact of Asian Influenza on Community Life. A Study in Five Cities ,U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda.
Rubin, R. J., and Gregg, M. B., 1975, Influenza surveillance in the United States, 1972–1974, Am. J. Epidemiol. 102:225–232.
Sartwell, P. E., and Long, A. P., 1948, The Army experience with influenza, 1946–1947. I. Epidemiological aspects, Am. J. Hyg. 47:135–141.
Schild, G. C., Henry-Aymard, M., Pereira, M. S., et al., 1973, Antigenic variation in current human type A influenza viruses: Antigenic characteristics of the variants and their geographic distribution, Bull. WHO 48:269–278.
Schild, G. C., Newman, R. W., McGregor, I. A., et al., 1977, The use of transportable single-radial-diffusion immunoplates in seroepidemiological studies of influenza in the Gambia. The occurrence and persistence of antibody to influenza A/Hong Kong/68 (H3N2) virus in selected inhabitants of two rural villages, Bull. WHO 55:3–13.
Schoenbaum, S. C., McNeil, B. J., and Kavet, J., 1976, The Swine-influenza decision, N. Engl. J. Med. 295:759–765.
Scholtissek, C., Rohde, W., von Hoyningen, V., et al., 1978a, On the origin of the human influenza subtypes H2N2 and H3N2, Virology 87:13–20.
Scholtissek, C., von Hoyningen, V., and Rott, R., 1978b, Genetic relatedness between the new 1977 epidemic strains (H1N1) of influenza and human influenza strains isolated between 1947 and 1957 (H1N1), Virology 89:613–617.
Schulman, J. L., and Kilbourne, E. D., 1963a, Experimental transmission of influenza virus infection in mice. I. The period of transmissibility, J. Exp. Med. 118:257–266.
Schulman, J. L., and Kilbourne, E. D., 1963b, Experimental transmission of influenza virus infection in mice. II. Some factors affecting the incidence of transmitted infection, J. Exp. Med. 118:267–275.
Schulman, J. L., and Kilbourne, E. D., 1966, Seasonal variations in the transmission of influenza virus infection in mice, in Biometeorology II. Proceedings Third International Biometeorology Congress, Pau, S. France, 1–7 Sept., 1963 ,Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 83–87.
Selby, P., 1982, Influenza Models. Prospects for Development and Use, MTP Press, Lancaster.
Serfling, R. E., 1963, Methods for current statistical analysis of excess pneumonia-influenza deaths, Public Health. Rep. 78:494–506.
Shadrin, A. S., Marinich, I. G., and Taros, L. Y., 1977, Experimental and epidemiological estimation of seasonal and climatogeographical features of non-specific resistance of the organism to influenza, J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 21:155–161.
Shen, F.-Z., Zhao, G.-F., and Xu, X.-L., 1983, Influenza surveillance, Chin. Med. J. 96:349–354.
Six, H. R., Webster, R. G., Kendal, A. P., et al., 1983, Antigenic analysis of H1N1 viruses isolated in the Houston metropolitan area during four successive seasons, Infect. Immun. 42:453–458.
Sonoguchi, T., Naito, H., Hara, M., et al., 1985, Cross-subtype protection in humans during sequential, overlapping, and/or concurrent epidemics caused by H3N2 and H1N1 influenza viruses, J. Infect. Dis. 151:81–88.
Spelman, D. W., and McHardy, C. J., 1985, Concurrent outbreaks of influenza A and influenza B, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 94:331–339.
Spencer, M. J., Cherry, J. D., and Teresaki, P. I., 1976, HL-A antigens and antibody response after influenza A vaccination. Decreased response associated with HL-A type W16, N. Engl. J. Med. 294:13–16.
Spicer, C. C., and Lawrence, C. J., 1984, Epidemic influenza in Greater London, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 93:105–112.
Stuart-Harris, C. H., Laird, J., Tyrrell, D. A., et al., 1949, The relationship between influenza and pneumonia, J Hyg. 47:434–448.
Taber, L. H., Paredes, A., Glezen, W. P., et al., 1981, Infection with influenza A/Victoria virus in Houston families, 1976, J. Hyg. (Camb.) 86:303–313.
Tateno, I., Suzuki, S., Nakamura, S., et al., 1963, Etiology and seasonal incidence of acute nonbacterial respiratory infections in adults with emphasis on influenza, Jpn. J. Exp. Med. 33:159.
Taylor, R., Nemaia, H., Tukuitonga, C., et al., 1985, An epidemic of influenza in the population of Niue, J. Med. Virol. 16:127–136.
Tillett, H. E., and Spencer, I.-L., 1982, Influenza surveillance in England and Wales using routine statistics, J. Hyg (Camb.) 88:83–94.
Troisi, C. L., and Monto, A. S., 1981, Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and hemagglutination inhibition in a seroepidemiological study of influenza type C infection, J. Clin. Microbiol. 14:515–521.
Van Voris, L. P., Belshe, R. B., and Shaffer, J. L., 1982, Nosocomial influenza B virus infection in the elderly, Ann. Intern. Med. 96:153–158.
Velazco, J. G., Couch, R. B., Six, H. R., et al., 1983, Surveillance of influenza in Houston, Texas, USA: Gradual transition from A/Victoria/75 (H3N2) to A/Texas/77 (H3N2) predominance and antigenic characterization of “intermediate” strains, Bull. WHO 61:345–352.
Verhoeyen, M., Fang, R., Min Jou, W., et al., 1980, Antigenic drift between the haemagglutinin of the Hong Kong influenza strains A/Aichi/2/68 and A/Victoria/3/75, Nature 286:771–776.
von Heise, R., Stelzner, A., Urbach, H., et al., 1976, Blood group affiliation of positive influenza A2 sera, Z. Ges. Hyg. 22:229–231.
Watkins, I. J., Tills, D., and Health, R. B., 1975, Studies of the genetic susceptibility of individuals to infection with influenza viruses, Humangenetik 30:75–79.
Webster, R. G., and Berton, M. T., 1981, Analysis of antigenic drift in the haemagglutinin molecule of influenza B virus with monoclonal antibodies, J. Gen. Virol. 54:243–251.
Welliver, R. C., Cherry, J. D., Boyer, K. M., et al., 1979, Sales of nonprescription cold remedies: A unique method of influenza surveillance, Pediatr. Res. 13:1015–1017.
Whittaker, R. G., and Underwood, P. A., 1980, A mechanism for influenza subtype disappearance, Med. Hypotheses 6:997–1008.
Widelock, D., Schaeffer, M., and Millian, S. J., 1965, Surveillance of infectious disease by serologic methods. I. Asian influenza, 1957–1964, Am. J. Public Health. 55:578–586.
Wiley, D. C., Wilson, I. A., and Skehel, J. J., 1981, Structural identification of the antibody binding sites of Hong Kong influenza hemagglutinin and their involvement in antigenic variation, Nature 289:373–378.
Wright, P. F., Bryant, J. D., and Karzon, D. T., 1980, Comparison of influenza B/Hong Kong virus infections among infants, children, and young adults, J. Infect. Dis. 141:430–435.
Yamane, N., Arikawa, J., Odagiri, T., et al., 1978, Isolation of three different influenza A viruses from an individual after probable double infection with H3N2 and H1N1 viruses, Jpn. J. Med. Sci. Biol. 31:431–434.
Young, J. F., and Palese, P., 1979, Evolution of human influenza A viruses in nature: Recombination contributes to genetic variation of H1N1 strains, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 76:6647–6651.
Zhdanov, V. M., and Ritova, V. V., 1962, Seasonal fluctuations in reactivity to live influenza vaccines, Vest. Akad. Med. Nauh SSR 17:3–5.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1987 Edwin D. Kilbourne, M.D.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kilbourne, E.D. (1987). The Epidemiology of Influenza. In: Influenza. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5239-6_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5239-6_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-5241-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-5239-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive