Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Anesthesiology Cardiology Dermatology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology General Medicine Geriatrics Hematology Infectious Diseases Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Obstetrics and Gynecology Oncology Pediatrics Psychiatry Radiology Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery Urology
Congress Coverage
2024 ESMO Congress 2024 ERS Congress 2024 EASD Congress 2024 ESC Congress 2024 EAN Congress 2024 ASCO Annual Meeting 2024 ACC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on modern management of frailty

LIVE: Thursday 17th October 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

Frailty has a significant impact on health and wellbeing, especially in older adults. Join our experts to understand the factors that contribute to the development of frailty and find out how to manage the condition and reduce the risk of disability, dependency, and mortality.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease
Published in:

Open Access 14-07-2024 | Review

Plasma Biomarkers of Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurodegeneration According to Sociodemographic Characteristics and Chronic Health Conditions

Authors: H. T. Zheng, Z. Wu, M. M. Mielke, A. M. Murray, Joanne Ryan

Published in: The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease | Issue 5/2024

Login to get access

Abstract

Ultrasensitive assays have been developed which enable biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease pathology and neurodegeneration to be measured in blood. These biomarkers can aid in diagnosis, and have been used to predict risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease. The ease and cost-effectiveness of blood collections means that these biomarkers could be applied more broadly in population-based screening, however it is critical to first understand what other factors could affect blood biomarker levels. The aim of this review was to determine the extent that sociodemographic, lifestyle and health factors have been associated with blood biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease and neuropathology. Of the 32 studies included in this review, all but one measured biomarker levels in plasma, and age and sex were the most commonly investigated factors. The most consistent significant findings were a positive association between age and neurofilament light chain (NfL) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and females had higher GFAP than men. Apolipoprotein ε4 allele carriers had lower Aβ42 and Aβ42/40 ratio. Body mass index was negatively associated with GFAP and NfL, and chronic kidney disease with higher levels of all biomarkers. Too few studies have investigated other chronic health conditions and this requires further investigation. Given the potential for plasma biomarkers to enhance Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis in primary care, it is important to understand how to interpret the biomarkers in light of factors that physiologically impact blood biomarker levels. This information will be critical for the establishment of reference ranges and thus the correct interpretation of these biomarkers in clinical screening.
Literature
1.
2.
Swaddiwudhipong N, Whiteside DJ, Hezemans FH, Street D, Rowe JB, Rittman T. Pre-diagnostic cognitive and functional impairment in multiple sporadic neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(5):1752–63.PubMedCrossRef
3.
Dubois B, von Arnim CAF, Burnie N, Bozeat S, Cummings J. Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease: role in early and differential diagnosis and recognition of atypical variants. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy. 2023;15(1):175.CrossRef
4.
Palmqvist S, Zetterberg H, Mattsson N, Johansson P, Minthon L, Blennow K, et al. Detailed comparison of amyloid PET and CSF biomarkers for identifying early Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2015;85(14):1240–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
5.
Barthélemy NR, Salvadó G, Schindler SE, He Y, Janelidze S, Collij LE, et al. Highly accurate blood test for Alzheimer’s disease is similar or superior to clinical cerebrospinal fluid tests. Nature Medicine. 2024.
6.
Noda K, Lim Y, Goto R, Sengoku S, Kodama K. Cost-effectiveness comparison between blood biomarkers and conventional tests in Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis. Drug Discovery Today. 2024;29(3):103911.PubMedCrossRef
7.
Moscoso A, Grothe MJ, Ashton NJ, Karikari TK, Lantero Rodríguez J, Snellman A, et al. Longitudinal Associations of Blood Phosphorylated Tau181 and Neurofilament Light Chain With Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer Disease. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78(4):396–406.PubMedCrossRef
8.
Chouraki V, Beiser A, Younkin L, Preis SR, Weinstein G, Hansson O, et al. Plasma amyloid-β and risk of Alzheimer’s disease in the Framingham Heart Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2015;11(3):249–57.e1.PubMedCrossRef
9.
Doecke JD, Pérez-Grijalba V, Fandos N, Fowler C, Villemagne VL, Masters CL, et al. Total Aβ(42)/Aβ(40) ratio in plasma predicts amyloid-PET status, independent of clinical AD diagnosis. Neurology. 2020;94(15):e1580–e91.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
10.
Fandos N, Pérez-Grijalba V, Pesini P, Olmos S, Bossa M, Villemagne VL, et al. Plasma amyloid β 42/40 ratios as biomarkers for amyloid β cerebral deposition in cognitively normal individuals. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring. 2017;8:179–87.
11.
Schindler SE, Bollinger JG, Ovod V, Mawuenyega KG, Li Y, Gordon BA, et al. High-precision plasma β-amyloid 42/40 predicts current and future brain amyloidosis. Neurology. 2019;93(17):e1647–e59.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
12.
Thijssen EH, La Joie R, Strom A, Fonseca C, Iaccarino L, Wolf A, et al. Plasma phosphorylated tau 217 and phosphorylated tau 181 as biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration: a retrospective diagnostic performance study. Lancet Neurol. 2021;20(9):739–52.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
13.
Norgren N, Rosengren L, Stigbrand T. Elevated neurofilament levels in neurological diseases. Brain Res. 2003;987(1):25–31.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Preische O, Schultz SA, Apel A, Kuhle J, Kaeser SA, Barro C, et al. Serum neurofilament dynamics predicts neurodegeneration and clinical progression in presymptomatic Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Med. 2019;25(2):277–83.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
15.
Li D, Zhang L, Nelson NW, Mielke MM, Yu F. Plasma Neurofilament Light and Future Declines in Cognition and Function in Alzheimer’s Disease in the FIT-AD Trial. J Alzheimers Dis Rep. 2021;5(1):601–11.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
16.
Gravesteijn G, Rutten JW, Verberk IMW, Böhringer S, Liem MK, van der Grond J, et al. Serum Neurofilament light correlates with CADASIL disease severity and survival. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2019;6(1):46–56.PubMedCrossRef
17.
Benedet AL, Milà-Alomà M, Vrillon A, Ashton NJ, Pascoal TA, Lussier F, et al. Differences Between Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Levels Across the Alzheimer Disease Continuum. JAMA Neurol. 2021.
18.
Chatterjee P, Pedrini S, Ashton NJ, Tegg M, Goozee K, Singh AK, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic plasma biomarkers for preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2021.
19.
Zetterberg H, Bendlin BB. Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease-preparing for a new era of disease-modifying therapies. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;26(1):296–308.PubMedCrossRef
20.
Rauchmann BS, Schneider-Axmann T, Perneczky R. Associations of longitudinal plasma p-tau181 and NfL with tau-PET, Aβ-PET and cognition. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2021;92(12):1289–95.PubMedCrossRef
21.
22.
Berry K, Asken BM, Grab JD, Chan B, Lario Lago A, Wong R, et al. Hepatic and renal function impact concentrations of plasma biomarkers of neuropathology. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2022;14(1):e12321.PubMedCrossRef
23.
Estrada LD, Ahumada P, Cabrera D, Arab JP. Liver Dysfunction as a Novel Player in Alzheimer’s Progression: Looking Outside the Brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 2019;11:174.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
24.
Wang YR, Wang QH, Zhang T, Liu YH, Yao XQ, Zeng F, et al. Associations Between Hepatic Functions and Plasma Amyloid-Beta Levels-Implications for the Capacity of Liver in Peripheral Amyloid-Beta Clearance. Mol Neurobiol. 2017;54(3):2338–44.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Nakamura A, Kaneko N, Villemagne VL, Kato T, Doecke J, Doré V, et al. High performance plasma amyloid-β biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. Nature. 2018;554(7691):249–54.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Pase MP, Beiser AS, Himali JJ, Satizabal CL, Aparicio HJ, DeCarli C, et al. Assessment of Plasma Total Tau Level as a Predictive Biomarker for Dementia and Related Endophenotypes. JAMA Neurol. 2019;76(5):598–606.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
27.
de Wolf F, Ghanbari M, Licher S, McRae-McKee K, Gras L, Weverling GJ, et al. Plasma tau, neurofilament light chain and amyloid-β levels and risk of dementia; a population-based cohort study. Brain. 2020;143(4):1220–32.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
28.
Hu N, Gao L, Jiang Y, Wei S, Shang S, Chen C, et al. The relationship between blood lipids and plasma amyloid beta is depend on blood pressure: a population-based cross-sectional study. Lipids Health Dis. 2020;19(1):8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
29.
Chatterjee P, Pedrini S, Stoops E, Goozee K, Villemagne VL, Asih PR, et al. Plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein is elevated in cognitively normal older adults at risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11(1):27.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
30.
Darmanthé N, Tabatabaei-Jafari H, Cherbuin N. Combination of Plasma Neurofilament Light Chain and Mini-Mental State Examination Score Predicts Progression from Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer’s Disease within 5 Years. J Alzheimers Dis. 2021;82(3):951–64.PubMedCrossRef
31.
Desai P, Evans D, Dhana K, Aggarwal NT, Wilson RS, McAninch E, et al. Longitudinal Association of Total Tau Concentrations and Physical Activity With Cognitive Decline in a Population Sample. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(8):e2120398.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
32.
Kaeser SA, Lehallier B, Thinggaard M, Häsler LM, Apel A, Bergmann C, et al. A neuronal blood marker is associated with mortality in old age. Nature Aging. 2021;1(2):218–25.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Keshavan A, Pannee J, Karikari TK, Rodriguez JL, Ashton NJ, Nicholas JM, et al. Population-based blood screening for preclinical Alzheimer’s disease in a British birth cohort at age 70. Brain. 2021;144(2):434–49.PubMedPubMedCentral
34.
Sullivan KJ, Blackshear C, Simino J, Tin A, Walker KA, Sharrett AR, et al. Association of Midlife Plasma Amyloid-β Levels With Cognitive Impairment in Late Life: The ARIC Neurocognitive Study. Neurology. 2021;97(11):e1123–e31.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
35.
Syrjanen JA, Campbell MR, Algeciras-Schimnich A, Vemuri P, Graff-Radford J, Machulda MM, et al. Associations of amyloid and neurodegeneration plasma biomarkers with comorbidities. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18(6):1128–40.PubMedCrossRef
36.
Chatterjee P, Pedrini S, Doecke JD, Thota R, Villemagne VL, Doré V, et al. Plasma Aβ42/40 ratio, p-tau181, GFAP, and NfL across the Alzheimer’s disease continuum: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study in the AIBL cohort. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(4):1117–34.PubMedCrossRef
37.
Jiang X, O’Bryant SE, Johnson LA, Rissman RA, Yaffe K. Association of cardiovascular risk factors and blood biomarkers with cognition: The HABS-HD study. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2023;15(1):e12394.PubMedCrossRef
38.
Mielke MM, Dage JL, Frank RD, Algeciras-Schimnich A, Knopman DS, Lowe VJ, et al. Performance of plasma phosphorylated tau 181 and 217 in the community. Nat Med. 2022;28(7):1398–405.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
39.
Pajewski NM, Elahi FM, Tamura MK, Hinman JD, Nasrallah IM, Ix JH, et al. Plasma amyloid beta, neurofilament light chain, and total tau in the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT). Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18(8):1472–83.PubMedCrossRef
40.
O’Bryant SE, Petersen M, Hall J, Johnson LA, Team ftH-HS. Medical comorbidities and ethnicity impact plasma Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers: Important considerations for clinical trials and practice. Alzheimer’s & Dementia. 2023;19(1):36–43.CrossRef
41.
Pichet Binette A, Janelidze S, Cullen N, Dage JL, Bateman RJ, Zetterberg H, et al. Confounding factors of Alzheimer’s disease plasma biomarkers and their impact on clinical performance. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(4):1403–14.PubMedCrossRef
42.
Estepp TG, Charnigo RJ, Abner EL, Jicha GA, Sudduth TL, Fardo DW, et al. Associations of potential ADRD plasma biomarkers in cognitively normal volunteers. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(8):3593–601.PubMedCrossRef
43.
Ferreira PCL, Zhang Y, Snitz B, Chang CH, Bellaver B, Jacobsen E, et al. Plasma biomarkers identify older adults at risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in a real-world population-based cohort. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(10):4507–19.PubMedCrossRef
44.
Sarto J, Esteller-Gauxax D, Tort-Merino A, Guillén N, Pérez-Millan A, Falgàs N, et al. Impact of demographics and comorbid conditions on plasma biomarkers concentrations and their diagnostic accuracy in a memory clinic cohort. J Neurol. 2024;271(4):1973–84.PubMedCrossRef
45.
Yakoub Y, Ashton NJ, Strikwerda-Brown C, Montoliu-Gaya L, Karikari TK, Kac PR, et al. Longitudinal blood biomarker trajectories in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(12):5620–31.PubMedCrossRef
46.
Yang Z, Sreenivasan K, Toledano Strom EN, Osse AML, Pasia LG, Cosme CG, et al. Clinical and biological relevance of glial fibrillary acidic protein in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2023;15(1):190.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
47.
Zhang B, Zhang C, Wang Y, Chen L, Qiao Y, Wang Y, et al. Effect of renal function on the diagnostic performance of plasma biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. Front Aging Neurosci. 2023;15:1150510.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
48.
Hayden KM, Mielke MM, Evans JK, Neiberg R, Molina-Henry D, Culkin M, et al. Association between Modifiable Risk Factors and Levels of Blood-Based Biomarkers of Alzheimer’s and Related Dementias in the Look AHEAD Cohort. JAR Life. 2024;13:1–21.PubMedPubMedCentral
49.
50.
51.
Abureesh M, Alkhayyat M, Abdelhay A, Badran R, Deeb L. S3253 Alzheimer’s Disease in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis: Analysis of a Large Population Registry. Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology ∣ ACG. 2020;115:S1701.CrossRef
52.
Wu J, Xiao Z, Wang M, Wu W, Ma X, Liang X, et al. The impact of kidney function on plasma neurofilament light and phospho-tau 181 in a community-based cohort: the Shanghai Aging Study. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy. 2024;16(1):32.CrossRef
53.
Manouchehrinia A, Piehl F, Hillert J, Kuhle J, Alfredsson L, Olsson T, et al. Confounding effect of blood volume and body mass index on blood neurofilament light chain levels. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology. 2020;7(1):139–43.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
54.
55.
Rebelos E, Rissanen E, Bucci M, Jääskeläinen O, Honka M-J, Nummenmaa L, et al. Circulating neurofilament is linked with morbid obesity, renal function, and brain density. Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):7841.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
56.
Janelidze S, Barthélemy NR, He Y, Bateman RJ, Hansson O. Mitigating the Associations of Kidney Dysfunction With Blood Biomarkers of Alzheimer Disease by Using Phosphorylated Tau to Total Tau Ratios. JAMA Neurol. 2023;80(5):516–22.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
57.
Bouteloup V, Pellegrin I, Dubois B, Chene G, Planche V, Dufouil C, et al. Explaining the Variability of Alzheimer Disease Fluid Biomarker Concentrations in Memory Clinic Patients Without Dementia. Neurology. 2024;102(8):e209219.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
58.
Brum WS, Docherty KF, Ashton NJ, Zetterberg H, Hansson O, McMurray JJV, et al. Effect of Neprilysin Inhibition on Alzheimer Disease Plasma Biomarkers: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Neurology. 2024;81(2):197–200.PubMedCrossRef
59.
Grimm MO, Mett J, Stahlmann CP, Haupenthal VJ, Zimmer VC, Hartmann T. Neprilysin and Aβ Clearance: Impact of the APP Intracellular Domain in NEP Regulation and Implications in Alzheimer’s Disease. Front Aging Neurosci. 2013;5:98.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
60.
Riaz M, Huq A, Ryan J, Orchard SG, Tiller J, Lockery J, et al. Effect of APOE and a polygenic risk score on incident dementia and cognitive decline in a healthy older population. Aging Cell. 2021;20(6):e13384.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
61.
Palmqvist S, Stomrud E, Cullen N, Janelidze S, Manuilova E, Jethwa A, et al. An accurate fully automated panel of plasma biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia. 2023;19(4):1204–15.CrossRef
62.
Parrado-Fernández C, Blennow K, Hansson M, Leoni V, Cedazo-Minguez A, Björkhem I. Evidence for sex difference in the CSF/plasma albumin ratio in ~20 000 patients and 335 healthy volunteers. J Cell Mol Med. 2018;22(10):5151–4.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
63.
Johnson M, Ramey E, Ramwell PW. Sex and age differences in human platelet aggregation. Nature. 1975;253(5490):355–7.PubMedCrossRef
64.
Weaving G, Batstone GF, Jones RG. Age and sex variation in serum albumin concentration: an observational study. Ann Clin Biochem. 2016;53(Pt 1):106–11.PubMedCrossRef
65.
Carbone MG, Pagni G, Tagliarini C, Imbimbo BP, Pomara N. Can platelet activation result in increased plasma Aβ levels and contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease? Ageing Res Rev. 2021;71:101420.PubMedCrossRef
66.
Carrero JJ, Hecking M, Chesnaye NC, Jager KJ. Sex and gender disparities in the epidemiology and outcomes of chronic kidney disease. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2018;14(3):151–64.PubMedCrossRef
67.
Matthews KA, Xu W, Gaglioti AH, Holt JB, Croft JB, Mack D, et al. Racial and ethnic estimates of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in the United States (2015-2060) in adults aged ≥65 years. Alzheimers Dement. 2019;15(1):17–24.PubMedCrossRef
68.
Morris JC, Schindler SE, McCue LM, Moulder KL, Benzinger TLS, Cruchaga C, et al. Assessment of Racial Disparities in Biomarkers for Alzheimer Disease. JAMA Neurol. 2019;76(3):264–73.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
69.
Weuve J, Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Rajan KB, Beck T, Aggarwal NT, et al. Cognitive Aging in Black and White Americans: Cognition, Cognitive Decline, and Incidence of Alzheimer Disease Dementia. Epidemiology. 2018;29(1):151–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
70.
Chaudhry A, Rizig M. Comparing fluid biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease between African American or Black African and white groups: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2021;421:117270.PubMedCrossRef
71.
Vlassoff C. Gender differences in determinants and consequences of health and illness. J Health Popul Nutr. 2007;25(1):47–61.PubMedPubMedCentral
72.
73.
74.
Dempsey DA, Deardorff R, Apostolova LG, Brosch JR, Clark DG, Farlow MR, et al. Mediterranean Diet Foods are Associated with Plasma Biomarkers of Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias. Alzheimer’s & Dementia. 2023;19(S14):e080051.CrossRef
75.
Sedaghat S, Ji Y, Hughes TM, Coresh J, Grams ME, Folsom AR, et al. The Association of Kidney Function with Plasma Amyloid-β Levels and Brain Amyloid Deposition. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease. 2023;92:229–39.PubMedCrossRef
76.
Stocker H, Beyer L, Trares K, Perna L, Rujescu D, Holleczek B, et al. Association of Kidney Function With Development of Alzheimer Disease and Other Dementias and Dementia-Related Blood Biomarkers. JAMA Network Open. 2023;6(1):e2252387–e.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
77.
Brickman AM, Manly JJ, Honig LS, Sanchez D, Reyes-Dumeyer D, Lantigua RA, et al. Plasma p-tau181, p-tau217, and other blood-based Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers in a multi-ethnic, community study. Alzheimers Dement. 2021;17(8):1353–64.PubMedCrossRef
78.
Dittrich A, Ashton NJ, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Zettergren A, Simrén J, et al. Association of Chronic Kidney Disease With Plasma NfL and Other Biomarkers of Neurodegeneration: The H70 Birth Cohort Study in Gothenburg. Neurology. 2023;101(3):e277–e88.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Plasma Biomarkers of Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurodegeneration According to Sociodemographic Characteristics and Chronic Health Conditions
Authors
H. T. Zheng
Z. Wu
M. M. Mielke
A. M. Murray
Joanne Ryan
Publication date
14-07-2024
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease / Issue 5/2024
Electronic ISSN: 2426-0266
DOI
https://doi.org/10.14283/jpad.2024.142

Other articles of this Issue 5/2024

The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease 5/2024 Go to the issue

Editorial

Amplifying Efficiency and Accuracy in Dementia Drug Development

Original Research

Semorinemab Pharmacokinetics and The Effect on Plasma Total Tau Pharmacodynamics in Clinical Studies

Original Research

Prevalence Estimation of Dementia/Alzheimer’s Disease Using Health and Retirement Study Database in the United States

Brief Communication

Association between Family Household Income and Cognitive Resilience among Older US Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study

Review

Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs and Dementia Prevention: A Systematic Review of Observational Evidence in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Review

Progress in the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease Is Needed – Position Statement of European Alzheimer’s Disease Consortium (EADC) Investigators

Advances in Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's research and care is changing rapidly. Keep up with the latest developments from key international conferences, together with expert insights on how to integrate these advances into practice.

This content is intended for healthcare professionals outside of the UK.

Supported by:
  • Lilly
Developed by: Springer Healthcare IME
Learn more
Image Credits