Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-23T12:56:39.561Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: the Current Status

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Mary M. Robertson*
Affiliation:
Academic Department of Psychiatry, University College and Middlesex Hospital Schools of Medicine, Wolfson Building, Middlesex Hospital, London W1N 8AA

Abstract

The Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome is a movement disorder characterised by both motor and vocal (phonic) tics. It was once thought to be rare, and the literature until the 1970s consisted predominantly of case reports, both highlighting the fascinating clinical manifestations and speculating as to their aetiology. Many areas of GTS are under investigation, including the neurology, psychopathology, neurophysiology, biochemistry, and genetics. This review briefly considers early descriptions of GTS as well as current research, highlighting the areas of agreement and controversy.

Type
Review Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1989 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abuzzahab, F. E. & Anderson, F. O. (1973) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Minnesota Medicine, 56, 492496.Google ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn, revised) (DSM–III–R). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Annett, M. (1970) A classification of hand preferences by association analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 61, 303321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Araneta, E., Magen, J., Musci, M. N., et al (1975) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome symptom onset at age 35. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 5, 224230.Google Scholar
Asam, U. (1982) A follow-up study of Tourette syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Ascher, E. (1948) Psychodynamic considerations in Gilles de la Tourette's disease (maladie des tics): with a report of five cases and discussion of the literature.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balthasar, K. (1957) Uber das anatomische Substrat der generalisierten Tic-Krankheit (maladie des tics, Gilles de la Tourette): Entwicklungshemmung des Corpus striatum. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten (Berlin), 195, 531 549.Google Scholar
Barabas, G., Matthews, W. S. & Ferrari, M. (1984a) Somnambulism in children with Tourette syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 26, 457460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barabas, G., Matthews, W. S. & Ferrari, M. (1984b) Disorders of arousal in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 34, 815817.Google Scholar
Barabas, G., Matthews, W. S. & Ferrari, M. (1984c) Tourette's syndrome and migraine. Archives of Neurology, 41, 871872.Google Scholar
Barabas, G., Matthews, W. S. & Ferrari, M. (1985) Sleep disorders in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 35, 1397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baraitser, M. (1982) The Genetics of Neurological Disorders. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baron, M., Shapiro, E., Shapiro, A. K., et al (1981) Genetic analysis of Tourette syndrome suggesting major gene effect. American Journal of Human Genetics, 33, 767775.Google Scholar
Beard, G. M. (1886) Experiments with the “jumpers” or “jumping Frenchmen” of Main. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 7, 487490.Google Scholar
Berg, R. (1985) A case of Tourette syndrome treated with nifedipine. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72, 400401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergen, D., Tanner, C. M. & Wilson, R. (1981) The electroencephalogram in Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 11, 382383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bleich, A., Bernout, E., Apter, A., et al (1985) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and mania in an adolescent. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 664665.Google Scholar
Bliss, J. (1980) Sensory experiences of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 13431347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bock, R. & Goldberger, L. (1985) Tonic, phasic and cortical arousal in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 48, 535544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bockner, S. (1959) Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Journal of Mental Science, 105, 10781081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonnet, K. A. (1982) Neurobiological dissection of Tourette syndrome: a neurochemical focus on a human neuroanatomical model. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Boswell, J. (1867) The Life of Samuel Johnson LLD. London: George Routledge & Sons.Google Scholar
Bruun, R. D. (1982) Dysphoric phenomena associated with haloperidol treatment of Tourette syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35 (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), pp. 433436. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Bruun, R. D. (1984) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: an overview of clinical experience. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 126133.Google Scholar
Bruun, R. D. & Shapiro, A. K. (1972) Differential diagnosis of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 155, 328332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burd, & Kerbeshian, J. (1984) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and bipolar disorder. Archives of Neurology, 41, 1236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burd, & Kerbeshian, J. (1985) Tourette syndrome, atypical pervasive developmental disorder and Ganser syndrome in a 15-year-old, visually impaired, mentally retarded boy. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 7476.Google Scholar
Burd, , Kerbeshian, J., Wikenheiser, M., et al (1986) Prevalence of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in North Dakota adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 787788.Google Scholar
Butler, I. J. (1984) Tourette's syndrome. Neurological Clinics, 2, 571580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caine, E. D. (1985) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a review of clinical and research studies and consideration of future directions for investigation. Archives of Neurology, 42, 393397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caine, E. D., Margolin, D. I., Brown, G. L., et al (1978) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, tardive dyskinesia and psychosis in an adolescent. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 241243.Google Scholar
Caine, E. D., & Polinsky, R. J. (1979) Haloperidol-induced dysphoria in patients with Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 12161217.Google ScholarPubMed
Caine, E. D., & Polinsky, R. J. (1981) Tardive dyskinesia in persons with Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Archives of Neurology, 38, 471472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caine, E. D., Lowell, R. W., Chiverton, P., et al (1985) Tourette syndrome and HLA. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 69, 201206.Google Scholar
Caine, E. D., McBride, M. C., Chiverton, P., et al (1988) Tourette syndrome in Monroe county school children. Neurology, 38, 472475.Google Scholar
Caparulo, B. K., Cohen, D. J., Rothman, S. L., et al (1981) Computed tomographic brain scanning in children with developmental neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 338357.Google Scholar
Chakraborty, A. (1960) Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 4, 187189.Google Scholar
Chase, T. N., Foster, N. L., Fedio, P., et al (1984) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: studies with the fluorine-18-labelled fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic method. Annals of Neurology, 15 (Suppl.), S175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, T. N., Geoffrey, V., Gillespie, M., et al (1986) Structural and functional studies of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 142, 851855.Google Scholar
Ciprian, J. (1980) Three cases of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Treatment with chlorimipramine: a preliminary report. Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 9, 116120.Google Scholar
Clark, D. F. (1966) Behaviour therapy of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 112, 771778.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. J., Detlor, J., Young, J. G., et al (1980) Clonidine ameliorates Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 13501357.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. J., Detlor, J., Shaywitz, B., et al (1982) Interactions of biological and psychological factors in the natural history of Tourette syndrome: a paradigm for childhood neuropsychiatric disorders. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Colvin, C. L. & Tankanow, R. M. (1985) Pimozide: use in Tourette's syndrome. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy, 19, 421424.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E., Gursey, B., Hecht, T., et al (1982) HLA typing in Tourette syndrome In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G. (1984) Tourette's syndrome and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity: are they genetically related? Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 138146.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G., Devor, E. J., et al (1984a) Detection of major gene for Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Human Genetics, 36, 586600.Google ScholarPubMed
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G.(1985) Tourette syndrome: clinical and psychological aspects of 250 cases. American Journal of Human Genetics, 37, 435450.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G. (1986) Evidence for an X-linked modifier gene affecting the expression of Tourette syndrome and its relevance to the increased frequency of speech, cognitive, behavioural disorders in males. Proceedings of the National Academic Sciences USA, 83, 25512555.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E., Comings, B. G., Dietz, G., et al (1986a) Evidence the Tourette syndrome gene is at 18 g 22.1. Abstracts, 7th International Congress of Human Genetics, Berlin, 1986, Abstract M, 11, 23, p. 620.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G. (1987a) A controlled study of Tourette syndrome, I– VII. American Journal of Human Genetics, 41, 701866.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E. & Comings, B. G. (1987b) Hereditary agoraphobia and obsessive-compulsive behaviour in relatives of patients with Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 195199.Google Scholar
Corbett, J. A., Matthews, A. M., Connell, P. H., et al (1969) Tics and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a follow-up study and critical review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 12291241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. L. & Frankel, M. (1985) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and the neurological basis of obsessions and compulsions. Biological Psychiatry, 20, 11171126.Google Scholar
Devinsky, O. (1983) Neuroanatomy of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: possible midbrain involvement. Archives of Neurology, 40, 508514.Google Scholar
Devor, E. J. (1984) Brief communication – complex segregation analysis of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: further evidence for a major locus mode of transmission. American Journal of Human Genetics, 36, 704709.Google Scholar
Dewulf, A. & van Bogaert, L. (1941) Etudes anatomo-cliniques de syndromes hypercinetiques complexes – Partie 3. Une observation anatomo-clinique de maladie des tics (Gilles de la Tourette). Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, 104, 5361.Google Scholar
Doleys, D. M. & Kurtz, P. S. (1974) A behavioral treatment program for the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Psychological Reports, 35, 4348.Google Scholar
Dunlap, J. R. (1960) A case of Gilles de la Tourette's disease (maladie des tics): a study of the intrafamily dynamics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 130, 340344.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, L., Ascher, E. & Kanner, L. (1959) A clinical study of Gilles de la Tourette's disease (maladie des tics) in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 715723.Google Scholar
El-Assra, A. (1987) A case of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in Saudi Arabia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 397398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eldridge, R., Sweet, R., Lake, C. R., et al (1977) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: clinical, genetic, psychologic, and biochemical aspects in 21 selected families. Neurology, 27, 115124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eldridge, R. & Denckla, M. B. (1987) The inheritance of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 13461347.Google Scholar
Ellison, R. M. (1964) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Medical Journal of Australia, 1, 153155.Google Scholar
Erenberg, G. (1985) Sleep disorders in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 35, 1397.Google Scholar
Erenberg, G. & Rothner, A. D. (1978) Tourette syndrome: a childhood disorder. Cleveland Clinic Quarterly, 45, 207212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erenberg, G., Cruse, R. P. & Rothner, A. D. (1986) Tourette syndrome: an analysis of 200 pediatric and adolescent cases. Cleveland Clinic Quarterly, 53, 127131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Escalar, G., Majeron, M. A., Finavera, L., et al (1972) Contribute alla conoscenza della sindrome Gilles de la Tourette. Minerva Medico, 63, 35173522.Google Scholar
Fahn, S. (1982) A case of post-traumatic tic syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35 (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), pp. 349350. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Fahn, S. (1987) Paroxysmal myoclonic dystonia with vocalisations. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 50, 117118.Google Scholar
Faux, E. J. (1966) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, social psychiatric management. Archives of General Psychiatry, 14, 139142.Google Scholar
Feinberg, T. E., Shapiro, A. K. & Shapiro, E. (1986) Paroxysmal myoclonic dystonia with vocalisations: new entity or variant of preexisting syndromes? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 49, 5257.Google Scholar
Fenichel, O. (1945) The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. New York: Norton and Company.Google Scholar
Ferenczi, S. (1921) Psychoanalytic observations on tic. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 2, 130.Google Scholar
Fernando, S. J. M. (1967) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a report on four cases and a review of published case reports. British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 607617.Google Scholar
Fernando, S. J. M. (1976) Six cases of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 436441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, J. R., Corbin, K. B., Goldstein, N. P., et al (1966) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 16, 453462.Google Scholar
Finegold, I. (1985) Allergy and Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Allergy, 55, 119121.Google Scholar
Fog, R. & Pakkenberg, H. (1980) Theoretical and clinical aspects of the Tourette syndrome (chronic multiple tic). Journal of Neural Transmission, 16, Suppl. 16, 211215.Google Scholar
Fog, R. & Pakkenberg, H., Regeur, L., et al (1982) “Tardive” Tourette syndrome in relation to long term neuroleptic treatment of multiple tics. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Frankel, M., Cummings, J. L., Robertson, M. M., et al (1986) Obsessions and compulsions in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 36, 378382.Google Scholar
Friedhoff, A. J. (1986) Insights into the pathophysiology and pathogenesis of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 142, 860864.Google Scholar
Friel, P. B. (1973) Familial incidence of Gilles de la Tourette's disease, with observations on aetiology and treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 655658.Google Scholar
Fulop, G., Phillips, R. A., Shapiro, A. K., et al (1987) ECG changes during haloperidol and pimozide treatment of Tourette's disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 673675.Google ScholarPubMed
Gilles de la Tourette, G. (1885) Etude sur une affection nerveuse caracterisée par de l'incoordination motrice accompagnée d'echolalie et de copralalie. Archives of Neurology, 9, 19 42, 158–200.Google Scholar
Gilles de la Tourette, G. (1899) La maladie des tics convulsifs. La Semaine Médicate, 19, 153156.Google Scholar
Gillies, D. R. N. & Forsythe, W. I. (1984) Treatment of multiple tics and the Tourette syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 26, 822833.Google Scholar
Gillman, M. A. & Sandyk, R. (1985) Tourette syndrome and the opioid system. Psychiatry Research, 15, 161162.Google Scholar
Glaze, D. G., Jamnkovic, J. & Frost, J. D. (1982) Sleep in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: disorder of arousal. Neurology, 32, 586592.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. (1977) The effect of central nervous system stimulants on Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 2, 6970.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. (1984) Psychologic and neuropsychologic aspects of Tourette's syndrome. Neurologic Clinics, 21, 91102.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. (1985) Tardive dyskinesia in Tourette syndrome. Pediatric Neurology, 1, 192194.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. & Greenhill, L. (1981) Tourette syndrome in mentally retarded children. Mental Retardation, 19, 17.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. & Hood, O. J. (1982) Tics and tremors. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 29, 95103.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J. A. (1984) Nifedipine treatment of Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 45, 360.Google ScholarPubMed
Gonce, M. & Barbeau, A. (1977) Seven cases of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: partial relief with clonazepam: a pilot study. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 4, 279283.Google Scholar
Green, R. C. & Pitman, R. K. (1986) Tourette syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder In Obsessive–Compulsive Disorders: Theory and Management (eds Jenike, M. A., Baer, L. & Minichiello, W. O.). Littleton MA: PSGP Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Grossman, H. Y., Mostofsky, D. I. & Harrison, R. H. (1986) Psychological aspects of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 228235.Google Scholar
Guggenheim, M. A. (1979) Familial Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 5, 104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guinon, G. (1886) Sur la maladie des tics convulsifs. Revue de Médecine, 6, 5080.Google Scholar
Haber, S. N., Kowall, N. W., Vonsattel, J. P., et al (1986) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a postmortem neuropathological and immunohistochemical study. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 75, 225241.Google Scholar
Hagin, R. A., Beecher, R., Pagano, G., et al (1982) Effects of Tourette syndrome on learning. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome, (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Hajal, F. & Leach, A. M. (1981) Familial aspects of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 9092.Google Scholar
Hammond, W. A. (1884) Myriachit, a newly described disease of the nervous system and its analogues. British Medical Journal, ii, 758759.Google Scholar
Harcherik, D. F., Cohen, D. J., Ort, S., et al (1985) Computed tomographic brain scanning in four neuropsychiatric disorders of childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 731734.Google Scholar
Heuscher, J. E. (1953) Intermediate states of consciousness in patients with generalised tics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 117, 2938.Google Scholar
Incagnoli, T. & Kane, R. (1983) Developmental perspective of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 12711281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Itard, J. M. G. (1825) Memoire sur quelques fonctions involontaires des appareils de la locomotion de la prehension et de la voix. Archives of General Medicine, 8, 385407.Google Scholar
Jagger, J., Prusoff, B. A., Cohen, D. J., et al (1982) The epidemiology of Tourette's syndrome: a pilot study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 8, 267278.Google Scholar
Jankovic, J., Glaze, D. G. & Frost, J. D. (1984) Effect of tetrabenazine on tics and sleep of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 34, 688692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, R. L. & Ashby, H. B. (1983) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in identical twins. Archives of Neurology, 40, 249251.Google Scholar
Jeste, D. V., Cutler, N. R., Kaufmann, C. A., et al (1983) Low-dose apomorphine and bromocriptine in neuroleptic-induced movement disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 18, 10851091.Google Scholar
Joschko, M. & Rourke, B. P. (1982) Neuropsychological dimensions of Tourette syndrome: test–retest stability and implications for intervention. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Joy-sobrino, J. J., Rivera-Rayes, L. & Aviles-Michel, R. (1985) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: an undiagnosed disorder. Boletin-Associacion Medico de Puerto Rico (San Juan), 77, 202206.Google Scholar
Kanner, L. (1957) The muscular system, tics. Child Psychiatry, 3rd edn. Springfield: Clarks C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Karson, C. N., Kaufmann, C. A., Shapiro, A. K., et al (1985) Eye-blink rate in Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 566568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelman, D. H. (1965) Gilles de la Tourette's disease in children: a review of the literature. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 219226.Google Scholar
Kerbeshian, J. & Burd, L. (1986a) A second visually impaired, mentally retarded male with pervasive developmental disorder, Tourette disorder and Ganser's syndrome: diagnostic classification and treatment. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 6, 6775.Google Scholar
Kerbeshian, J. & Burd, L. (1986b) Asperger's syndrome and Tourette syndrome: the case of the pinball wizard. British Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 731736.Google Scholar
Kerbeshian, J. & Burd, L. (1987) Are schizophreniform symptoms present in attenuated form in children with Tourette disorder and other developmental disorders? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 32, 123135.Google Scholar
Kidd, K. K., Prusoff, B. A. & Cohen, D. J. (1980) Familial pattern of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 13361347.Google Scholar
Kjaer, M., Boris, P. & Hansen, L. G. (1986) Abnormal CT scan in a patient with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neuroradiology, 28, 362363.Google Scholar
Klawans, H. L., Falk, D. K., Nausieda, P. A., et al (1978) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome after long-term chlorpromazine therapy. Neurology, 28, 10641066.Google Scholar
Kondo, K. & Nomura, Y. (1982) Tourette syndrome in Japan: etiologic considerations based on associated factors and familial clustering. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Krumholz, A., Singer, H. S., Niedermeyer, E., et al (1983) Electrophysiological studies in Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 14, 638641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurlan, R., Behr, J., Medved, L., et al (1986) Familial Tourette's syndrome: report of a large pedigree and potential for linkage analysis. Neurology, 36, 772776.Google Scholar
Kurlan, R., Behr, J., Medved, L., et al (1987) Severity of Tourette's syndrome in one large kindred: implication for determination of disease prevalence rate. Neurology, 44, 268269.Google Scholar
Lacey, D. J. (1986) Diagnosis of Tourette syndrome in childhood: the need for heightened awareness. Clinical Pediatrics, 25, 433435.Google Scholar
Lakke, J. P. W. F. & Wilmink, J. T. (1985) A case of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome with midbrain involvement. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 48, 12931296.Google Scholar
Lal, S. & Alansari, E. (1986) Tourette-like syndrome following low dose short-term neuroleptic treatment. Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques, 13, 125128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leckman, J. F. & Cohen, D. J. (1983) Recent advances in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: implications for clinical practice and future research. Psychiatric Developments, 3, 301316.Google Scholar
Leckman, J. F. Detlor, J., Harcherik, D. F., et al (1985) Short and long term treatment of Tourette's syndrome with donidine: a clinical perspective. Neurology, 35, 343351.Google Scholar
Leckman, J. F., Ort, S., Caruso, K. A., et al (1986) Rebound phenomena in Tourette's syndrome after abrupt withdrawal of clonidine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 11681176.Google Scholar
Leckman, J. F., Price, R. A., Walkup, J. T., et al (1987) Nongenetic factors in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 100.Google Scholar
Lees, A. J. (1986) Georges Gilles de la Tourette: the man and his times. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 142, 808816.Google Scholar
Lees, A. J., Robertson, M., Trimble, M. R., et al (1984) A clinical study of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in the United Kingdom. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 47, 18.Google Scholar
Lieh Mak, F., Chung, S. Y., Lee, P., et al (1982) Tourette syndrome in the Chinese: a follow-up of 15 cases. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Linet, L. S. (1985) Tourette syndrome, pimozide and school phobia: the neuroleptic separation anxiety syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 613615.Google Scholar
Lowe, O. (1986) Tourette's syndrome: management of oral complications. Journal of Dentistry for Children, 53, 456460.Google Scholar
Lowe, T. L., Cohen, D. J., Detlor, J., et al (1982) Stimulant medications precipitate Tourette's syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 247, 11681169.Google Scholar
Lucas, A. R. & Rodin, E. A. (1973) Electroencephalogram in Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Fifth World Congress of Psychiatry, Mexico City, 85 89.Google Scholar
Lucas, A. R., Beard, C. M., Rajput, A. H., et al (1982) Tourette syndrome in Rochester, Minnesota, 1968–1979. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
MacDonald, I. J. (1963) A case of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, with some aetiological observations. British Journal of Psychiatry, 109, 206210.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. S. (1944) Tics and impulsions in children: a study of motility. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 13, 430444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahler, M. S. & Rangell, L. (1943) A psychosomatic study of maladie des tics (Gilles de la Tourette's Disease). Psychiatric Quarterly, 17, 579603.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. S., Luke, J. A. & Daltroff, W. (1945) Clinical and follow up study of the tic syndrome in children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 15, 631647.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. S., & Luke, J. A.(1946) Outcome of the tic syndrome. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 103, 433445.Google Scholar
Mandell, M. (1986) Allergy and Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Allergy, 56, 507508.Google Scholar
Marneros, A. (1983) Adult onset of Tourette's syndrome: a case report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 924925.Google Scholar
McHenry, L. C. Jr (1967) Samuel Johnson's tics and gesticulations. Journal of the History of Medicine, 22, 152168.Google Scholar
Meige, H. & Feindel, E. (1907) Tics and their Treatment. Translated and edited by Wilson, S. A. K. New York: William Wood and Co.Google Scholar
Mendelson, W. B., Caine, E. D., Goyer, P., et al (1980) Sleep in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 15, 339343.Google ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, J. R., Merikangas, K. R., Kopp, U., et al (1985) Blood choline and response to clonazepam and haloperidol in Tourette's syndrome. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72, 395399.Google Scholar
Messiha, F. S. (1979) A pharmacotherapeutic rationale for the use of lithium carbonate in Tourette's syndrome. Proceedings of the Western Pharmacological Society (Seattle), 22, 2227.Google Scholar
Mesulam, M.-M. & Petersen, R. C. (1987) Treatment of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: eight-year, practice-based experience in a predominantly adult population. Neurology, 37, 18281833.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikkelsen, E. J., Detlor, J. & Cohen, D. J. (1981) School avoidance and social phobia triggered by haloperidol in patients with Tourette's disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 15721575.Google Scholar
Min, S. K. & Lee, H. (1986) A clinical study of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in Korea. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 644647.Google Scholar
Minoeraa, R. B., van Gemert, T. M. & van de Wetering, B. J. M. (1988) Onverwachte presentatiewijzen van het symdroom van Gilles de la Tourette. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatric, 30, 246254.Google Scholar
Mizrahi, E. M., Holtzman, D. & Tharp, B. (1980) Haloperidol-induced tardive dyskinesia in a child with Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Archives of Neurology, 37, 380.Google Scholar
Moldofsky, H., Tullis, C. & Lamon, R. (1974) Multiple tic syndrome (Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome). Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 15, 282292.Google Scholar
Moldofsky, H., & Sandor, P. (1983) Lecithin in the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 16271629.Google Scholar
Mondrup, K., Dupont, E. & Braendgaard, H. (1985) Progabide in the treatment of hyperkinetic extrapyramidal movement disorders. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 72, 341343.Google Scholar
Montgomery, M. A., Clayton, P. J. & Friedhoff, A. J. (1982) Psychiatric illness in Tourette syndrome patients and first-degree relatives. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Morkovkin, A. V., Chekhonin, V. P. & Kammenykh, L. N. (1986) Immunofermentativnyi metod opredeleniia spetsificheskogo alpha 2-globuline mozga v syvortke krovi u detei s sindromon turetta. Zhurnal Nevropatologii I Psikhiatrii Imeni S. S. Korskakova (Moskva), 86, 14741476.Google Scholar
Morphew, J. A. & Sim, M. (1969) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a clinical and psychopathological study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 42, 293301.Google Scholar
Mueller, J. & Aminoff, M. J. (1982) Tourette-like syndrome after long-term neuroleptic drug treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 191193.Google Scholar
Murray, T. J. (1979) Dr Samuel Johnson's movement disorders. British Medical Journal, i, 16101614.Google Scholar
Nada Raja, R. (1970) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 117, 476.Google Scholar
Nee, L. E., Caine, E. D., Polinsky, R. J., et al (1980) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: clinical and family study of 50 cases. Annals of Neurology, 7, 4149.Google Scholar
Nomura, Y. & Segawa, M. (1982) Tourette syndrome in the Chinese: a follow-up of 15 cases. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Obeso, J. A., Rothwell, J. C. & Marsen, C. D. (1982) The neurophysiology of Tourette syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
O'Brien, J. A. (1883) Latah. Journal of the British Asiatic Society, 1, 381.Google Scholar
O'Quinn, A. N. & Thompson, R. J. (1980) Tourette's syndrome: an expanded view. Pediatrics, 66, 420424.Google Scholar
Paolucci, S., Ciani, S., Buttinelli, C, et al (1984) Treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome with depot neuroleptics. Acta Neurologica (Napoli), 6, 222224.Google Scholar
Patrick, H. T. (1905) Convulsive tic. Journal of the American Medical Association, 44, 437442.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., Cohen, D. J., Heimbuch, R., et al (1981) Familial pattern and transmission of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and multiple tics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 10911093.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., & Leckman, J. F. (1986) The inheritance of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and associated behaviors. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 993997.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., Leckman, J. F., Towbin, K. E., et al (1986a) A possible genetic relationship exists between Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 22, 730733.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., Towbin, K. E., Leckman, J. F., et al (1986b) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 11801182.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., Hurst, C. R., Kruger, S. D., et al (1986c) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 11771179.Google Scholar
Pauls, D. L., Cohen, D. J., Kidd, K. K., et al (1988) The Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (letter to the editor). American Journal of Human Genetics, 43, 206209.Google Scholar
Pitman, R. K. (1987) Pierre Janet on obsessive–compulsive disorder (1903). Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 226232.Google Scholar
Pollack, M. A., Cohen, N. L. & Friedhoff, A. J. (1977) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: familial occurrence and precipitation by methylphenidate therapy. Archives of Neurology, 34, 630632.Google Scholar
Prabhakaran, N. (1970) A case of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome with some observations on aetiology and treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 116, 539541.Google Scholar
Price, R. A., Pauls, D. L. & Caine, E. D. (1984) Pedigree and segregation analysis of clinically defined subgroups of Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Human Genetics, 36, 178s.Google Scholar
Price, R. A., Kidd, K. K., Cohen, D. J., et al (1985) A twin study of Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 815820.Google Scholar
Pulst, S. M., Walshe, T. M. & Romero, J. A. (1983) Carbon monoxide poisoning with features of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Archives of Neurology, 40, 443444.Google Scholar
Pushkov, V. V. (1986) O Lechenii sindroma turetta. Zhurnal Nevropatologii I Psikhiatrii Imeni S. S. Korsakova (Moskva), 86, 14761479.Google Scholar
Rapp, D. J. (1986) Allergy and Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Allergy, 56, 507.Google Scholar
Regeur, L., Pakkenberg, B., Fog, R., et al (1986) Clinical features and long-term treatment with pimozide in 65 patients with Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 49, 791795.Google Scholar
Reid, A. H. (1984) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in mental handicap. Journal of Medical Deficiency Research, 28, 8183.Google Scholar
Richardson, E. P. (1982) Neuropathological studies of Tourette syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Robertson, M., Evans, K., Robinson, A., et al (1987) Abnormalities of copper in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 22, 968978.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, M., Trimble, M. R. & Lees, A. J. (1988) The psychopathology of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a phenomenological analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 383390.Google Scholar
Robertson, M., Trimble, M. R. & Lees, A. J. (1989) Self-injurous behaviour and the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. A clinical study and review of the literature. Psychological Medicine (in press).Google Scholar
Ross, M. S. & Moldofsky, H. (1978) A comparison of pimozide and haloperidol in the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 585587.Google Scholar
Sacks, O. W. (1982) Acquired Tourettism in adult life. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Saint-Hilaire, M. J., Saint-Hilaire, J. M. & Granger, L. (1986) Jumping Frenchmen of Maine. Neurology, 36, 12691271.Google Scholar
Sandyk, R. (1985) The effects of naloxone in Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 18, 367368.Google Scholar
Sandyk, R. (1986) Tourette syndrome: successful treatment with clonidine and oxycodone. Journal of Neurology, 233, 178179.Google Scholar
Savicki, V. & Carlin, A. S. (1972) Behavioral treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. International Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 1, 97109.Google Scholar
Schelkunov, E. L., Kenunen, O. G., Pushkov, V. V., et al (1986) Heart rate, blood pressure regulation and neurotransmitter balance in Tourette's syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 645652.Google Scholar
Seeman, M. V., Patel, J. & Pyke, J. (1981) Tardive dyskinesia with Tourette-like syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 42, 357358.Google Scholar
Seignot, M. J. N. (1961) Un cas de maladie des tics de Gilles de la Tourette guéri par le R-1625. Annatls Medico-Psychologiques (Paris), 119, 578579.Google Scholar
Shaenboen, M. J., Nigro, M. A. & Martocci, R. J. (1984) Colpocephali and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Archives of Neurology, 41, 1023.Google Scholar
Shafii, M. (1986) The effects of sympathomimetic and antihistaminic agents on chronic motor tics and Tourette's disorder. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 1228.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E. & Wayne, H. L. (1973) The symptomatology and diagnosis of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of American Academic Child Psychiatry, 12, 702723.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. K., & Shapiro, E. (1982a) Tourette syndrome: history and present status. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. K., & Shapiro, E. (1982b) An update on Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 36, 379389.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E. & Eisenkraft, G. (1983) Treatment of Tourette disorder with penfluridol. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 24, 327331.Google Scholar
Shapiro, E. & Shapiro, A. K. (1986) Semiology, nosology and criteria for tic disorders. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 142, 824832.Google Scholar
Shenken, L. (1984) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. New Zealand Medical Journal, 97, 51.Google Scholar
Silverstein, F., Smith, C. B. & Johnston, M. V. (1985) Effect of clonidine on platelet alpha 2-adrenoreceptors and plasma norepinephrine of children with Tourette syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 27, 793799.Google Scholar
Singer, H. S., Gammon, K. & Quaskey, S. (1986) Haloperidol, fluphenazine and clonidine in Tourette syndrome: controversies in treatment. Pediatric Neuroscience, 12, 7174.Google Scholar
Smith, R. A. (1980) Inheritance and epidemiology of headache. In Wolffs Headache and other Head Pain, 4th edn (ed. Dalessio, D. J.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stahl, S. M. (1980) Tardive Tourette syndrome in an autistic patient after long-term neuroleptic administration. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 12671269.Google Scholar
Stahl, S. M. & Berger, P. A. (1981) Physostigmine in Tourette syndrome: evidence for cholinergic underactivity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 240242.Google Scholar
Stefl, M. E. (1984) Mental health needs associated with Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 13101313.Google Scholar
Stefl, M. E. & Rubin, M. (1985) Tourette syndrome in the classroom: special problems, special needs. Journal of School Health, 55, 7275.Google Scholar
Stevens, H. (1964) The syndrome of Gilles de la Tourette and its treatment: report of a case. Medical Annals of the District of Columbia, 33, 277279.Google Scholar
Stefl, M. E. (1971) Gilles de la Tourette and his syndrome by serendipity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 489492.Google Scholar
Storms, L. (1985) Massed negative practice as a behavioral treatment for Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 39, 277281.Google Scholar
Takevchi, K., Yamashita, M., Morikiyo, M. et al (1986) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and schizophrenia. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 247248.Google Scholar
Tansey, M. A. (1986) A simple and complex tic (Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome): their response to EEG sensorimotor rhythm biofeedback training. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 4, 9197.Google Scholar
Tiller, J. W. (1978) Brief family therapy for childhood tic syndrome. Family Process, 17, 217223.Google Scholar
Tolosa, E. S., Montserrat, L. & Bayes, A. (1986) Reduction of brainstem interneuron excitability during voluntary tic inhibition in Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 36, (Suppl. 1), 118119.Google Scholar
Turpin, G. C. H. (1982) Behavioural management of Gilles de la Tourette's and multiple tic syndromes. MPhil thesis, University of London.Google Scholar
Uhr, S. B., Pruitt, B., Berger, P. A., et al (1986) Improvement of symptoms in Tourette syndrome by piquindone, a novel dopamine-2 receptor antagonist. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 1, 216220.Google Scholar
Van de Weterino, B. J. M., Martens, C. M. C, Fortoens, C., et al (1985) Late components of the auditory evoked potentials in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Clinics in Neurology and Neurosurgery, 87, 181186.Google Scholar
Van de Weterino, B. J. M., Cohen, A. P., Minderaa, R. B., et al (1988) Het Syndroom van Gilles de la Tourette: Klinische Bevindingen. Nederlands Tijdschrifte voor Geneeskunde, 132, 2125.Google Scholar
Van Woert, M. J., Jutkowitz, R., Rosenbaum, D., et al (1976) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: biochemical approaches. In The Basal Ganglia (ed. Yahr, M. D.). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
de Veaugh-Geiss, J. (1980) Tardive Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 30, 562563.Google Scholar
Verma, N. P., Syrigou-Papavasiliou, A. & Lewitt, P. A. (1986) Electroencephalographic findings in unmedicated, neurologically and intellectually intact Tourette syndrome patients. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 64, 1220.Google Scholar
Vieregge, P. (1987) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in monozygotic twins. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 50, 15541556.Google Scholar
Walsh, T. L., Lavenstein, B., Licamele, W. L., et al (1986) Calcium antagonists in the treatment of Tourette's disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 14671468.Google Scholar
Waserman, J., Lal, S. & Gauthier, S. (1983) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in monozygotic twins. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 46, 7577.Google Scholar
Wassman, E. R., Eldridge, R., Abuzzahab, S., et al (1978) Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: clinical and genetic studies in a midwestern city. Neurology, 28, 304307.Google Scholar
Weiden, P. & Bruun, R. (1987) Worsening of Tourette's disorder due to neuroleptic-induced akathisia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 504505.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S., Garron, D. C, Tanner, C. M., et al (1982) Behavior disturbance in children with Tourette syndrome. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (eds Friedhoff, A. J. & Chase, T. N.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 35. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Woody, R. C. & Laney, M. (1986) Tics and Tourette's syndrome: a review. Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society, 83, 5355.Google Scholar
Yaryura-Tobias, J. A., Neziroglu, F., Howard, S., et al (1981) Clinical aspects of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 10, 263268.Google Scholar
Yaryura-Tobias, J. A., Neziroglu, F., (1983) Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders, Pathogenesis-Diagnosis-Treatment. New York & Basel: Marcel Dekker.Google Scholar
Zausmer, D. M. & Dewey, M. E. (1987) Tics and heredity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 628634.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.