Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-wg55d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-18T06:52:37.888Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Socially anxious mothers' narratives to their children and their relation to child representations and adjustment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2014

Lynne Murray ,
Jeff E. Pella ,
Leonardo De Pascalis ,
Adriane Arteche ,
Laura Pass ,
Ray Percy ,
Catharine Creswell  and
Peter J. Cooper
Lynne Murray*
Affiliation:
University of Reading Stellenbosch University
Jeff E. Pella
Affiliation:
University of Maryland
Leonardo De Pascalis
Affiliation:
University of Reading
Adriane Arteche
Affiliation:
PUCRS University
Laura Pass
Affiliation:
University of Reading
Ray Percy
Affiliation:
University of Southampton
Catharine Creswell
Affiliation:
University of Reading
Peter J. Cooper
Affiliation:
University of Reading Stellenbosch University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Lynne Murray, Department of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AL, UK; E-mail: lynne.murray@rdg.c.uk.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Anxious mothers' parenting, particularly transfer of threat information, has been considered important in their children's risk for social anxiety disorder (SAnxD), and maternal narratives concerning potential social threat could elucidate this contribution. Maternal narratives to their preschool 4- to 5-year-old children, via a picture book about starting school, were assessed in socially anxious (N = 73), and nonanxious (N = 63) mothers. Child representations of school were assessed via doll play (DP). After one school term, mothers (Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL]) and teachers (Teacher Report Form) reported on child internalizing problems, and child SAnxD was assessed via maternal interview. Relations between these variables, infant behavioral inhibition, and attachment, were examined. Socially anxious mothers showed more negative (higher threat attribution) and less supportive (lower encouragement) narratives than controls, and their children's DP representations SAnxD and CBCL scores were more adverse. High narrative threat predicted child SAnxD; lower encouragement predicted negative child CBCL scores and, particularly for behaviorally inhibited children, Teacher Report Form scores and DP representations. In securely attached children, CBCL scores and risk for SAnxD were affected by maternal anxiety and threat attributions, respectively. Low encouragement mediated the effects of maternal anxiety on child DP representations and CBCL scores. Maternal narratives are affected by social anxiety and contribute to adverse child outcome.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 26 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives Toward Understanding Internalizing Psychopathology: Current Research and Future Directions , November 2014 , pp. 1531 - 1546
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist: 4–18. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Barrett, P., Rapee, R., Dadds, M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family enhancement of cognitive style in anxious and aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 187–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.Google Scholar
Benson, J. B. (1994). The origins of future orientation in the everyday lives of 9- to 36-month-old infants. In Haith, M. M., Benson, J. B., Roberts, R. J. Jr., & Pennington, B. F. (Eds.), The development of future-oriented processes (pp. 375–407). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J. F., Bolduc-Murphy, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Chaloff, J., Hirshfeld, D. R., et al. (1993). A 3-year follow-up of children with and without behavioral inhibition. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 814–821.Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. L. (2006). Family issues in child anxiety: Attachment, family functioning, parental rearing and beliefs. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 834–856.Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., van Dongen, L., & Muris, P. (2003). Family influences on dysfunctional thinking in anxious children. Infant and Child Development, 12, 243–252.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 177–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning: The Jerusalem Harvard lectures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bruner, J. (2004). The narrative creation of self. In Angus, L. E. & McLeod, J. (Eds.), The handbook of narrative and psychotherapy: Practice, theory, and research (pp. 3–14). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., Fox, N. A., & Marshall, T. R. (1996). Behavioral and physiological antecedents of inhibited and uninhibited behavior. Child Development, 67, 523–540.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1995). Contribution of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and methods (Vol. 1, pp. 581–617). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Cognitive processing in children: Relationship to anxiety and family influences. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 170–176.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 3–21.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Perceived control as a mediator of family environment in etiological models of childhood anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 29, 457–476.Google Scholar
Cobham, V. E., & Dadds, M. R. (1999). Anxious children and their parents: What do they expect? Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 220–231.Google Scholar
Colonnesi, C., Draijer, E. M., Stams, G. J. J. M., Van der Bruggen, C. O., Bögels, S. M., & Noom, M. J. (2011). The relation between insecure attachment and child anxiety: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 630–645.Google Scholar
Cooper, P. J., & Eke, M. (1999). The relation between childhood shyness and maternal social phobia: a community study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 439–443.Google Scholar
Cooper, P. J., Vally, Z., Cooper, H., Radford, T., Sharples, A., Tomlinson, M., et al. (2013). Promoting mother–infant book sharing and infant attention and language development in an impoverished South African population: A pilot study. Early Childhood Education Journal. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Egger, H. L., Copeland, W., Erkanli, A., & Angold, A. (2011). The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: Phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. In Silverman, W. K. & Field, A. P. (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 56–75). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creswell, C., & O'Connor, T. G. (2006). Anxious cognitions in children: An exploration of associations and mediators. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 761–766.Google Scholar
Creswell, C., Murray, L., Stacey, J., & Cooper, P. (2011). Parenting and child anxiety. In Silverman, W. K. & Field, A. P. (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 299–322). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Creswell, C., O'Connor, T. G., & Brewin, C. R. (2006). A longitudinal investigation of maternal and child “anxious cognitions.” Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 135–147.Google Scholar
Creswell, C., Schniering, C. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Threat interpretation in anxious children and their mothers: Comparison with nonclinical children and the effects of treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1375–1381.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family process and child anxiety and aggression: An observational analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 715–734.Google Scholar
de Rosnay, M., Cooper, P. J., Tsigaras, N., & Murray, L. (2006). Transmission of social anxiety from mother to infant: An experimental study using a social referencing paradigm. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1165–1175.Google Scholar
Degonda, M., & Angst, J. (1993). The Zurich study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 243, 95–102.Google Scholar
Denham, S. A., Zoller, D., & Couchoud, E. A. (1994). Socialization of preschoolers' emotion understanding. Developmental Psychology, 30, 928–936.Google Scholar
Dodd, H. F., Hudson, J. L., Morris, T. L., & Wise, C. K. (2011). Interpretation bias in preschool children at risk for anxiety: A prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 28–38.Google Scholar
Dunn, J., Bretherton, I., & Munn, P. (1987). Conversations about feeling states between mothers and their young children. Developmental Psychology, 23, 132–139.Google Scholar
Dunn, J., Brown, J., & Beardsall, L. (1991). Family talk about feeling states and children's later understanding of others' emotions. Developmental Psychology, 27, 448–455.Google Scholar
Dyer, J. R., Shatz, M., & Wellman, H. M. (2000). Young children's storybooks as a source of mental state information. Cognitive Development, 15, 17–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, S. (1980). The stability of behavior: II. Implications for psychological research. American Psychologist, 35, 790–806.Google Scholar
Field, A. P., Hamilton, S. J., Knowles, K. A., & Plews, E. L. (2003). Fear information and social phobic beliefs in children: A prospective paradigm and preliminary results. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 113–123.Google Scholar
Field, A. H., & Lawson, J. (2003). Fear information and the development of fears during childhood: Effects on implicit fear responses and behavioural avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1277–1293.Google Scholar
Field, A., Lawson, J., & Banerjee, R. (2008). The verbal threat information pathway to fear in children: The longitudinal effects on fear cognitions and the immediate effects on avoidance behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 214–224.Google Scholar
First, M., Spitzer, R., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. (1995). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I diagnoses. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department.Google Scholar
Fivush, R. (1991). The social construction of personal narratives. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 37, 59–81.Google Scholar
Fivush, R., & Nelson, K. (2006). Parent–child reminiscing locates the self in the past. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 235–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Mother knows best: Effects of maternal modelling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behaviour in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 279–287.Google Scholar
Greco, L. A., & Morris, T. L. (2002). Paternal child-rearing style and child social anxiety: Investigation of child perceptions and actual father behavior. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 24, 259–267.Google Scholar
Gregory, A. M., & Eley, T. C. (2007). Genetic influences on anxiety in children: What we've learned and where we're heading. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 199–212.Google Scholar
Haden, C. A. (2003). Autobiographical memory and the construction of a narrative self: Developmental and cultural perspectives. Oxford: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Haden, C. A., Haine, R. A., & Fivush, R. (1997). Developing narrative structure in parent–child reminiscing across the preschool years. Developmental Psychology, 33, 295–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadwin, J. A., Garner, M., & Perez-Olivas, G. (2006). The development of information processing biases in childhood anxiety: A review and exploration of its origins in parenting. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 876–894.Google Scholar
Hirshfeld, D. R., Biederman, J., Brody, L., Faraone, S., & Rosenbaum, J. (1997). Expressed emotion toward children with behavioral inhibition: Associations with maternal anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 910–917.Google Scholar
Hirshfeld, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Biederman, J., Bolduc, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Snidman, N., et al. (1992). Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 103–111.Google Scholar
Hudson, J. A. (2004). The development of future thinking: Constructing future events in mother–child conversation. In Lucariello, J. M., Hudson, J. A., Fivush, R., & Bauer, P. J. (Eds.), The development of the mediated mind: Sociocultural context and cognitive development (pp. 127–150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2001). Parent–child interactions and anxiety disorders: An observational study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1411–1427.Google Scholar
Hughes, S. (1973). Lucy and Tom go to school. London: Gollancz.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1991). Temperamental factors in human development. American Psychologist, 46, 856–862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1999). Early childhood predictors of adult anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1536–1541.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development, 58 1459–1473.Google Scholar
Kortlander, E., Kendall, P. C., & Panichelli-Mindel, S. M. (1997). Maternal expectations and attributions about coping in anxious children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 297–315.Google Scholar
Lawson, J., Banerjee, R., & Field, A. P. (2007). The effects of verbal information on children's fear beliefs about social situations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 21–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lester, K. J., Field, A. P., Oliver, S., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2009). Do anxious parents interpretive biases towards threat extend into their child's environment? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 170–174.Google Scholar
Lieb, R., Wittchen, H., Höfler, M., Fuetsch, M., Stein, M., & Merikangas, K. (2000). Parental psychopathology, parenting styles, and the risk of social phobia in offspring. Archives General Psychiatry, 57, 859–866.Google Scholar
Lonigan, C. J., & Phillips, B. M. (2001). Temperamental influences on the development of anxiety disorders. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 60–91). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucariello, J., & Nelson, K. (1987). Remembering and planning talk between mothers and children. Discourse Processes, 10, 219–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In Greenburg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (Vol. 1, pp. 121–160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mathews, A., May, J., Mogg, K., & Eysenck, M. (1990). Attentional bias in anxiety: Selective search or defective filtering? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 166–173.Google Scholar
Mattick, R. P., & Clarke, J. C. (1998). Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 455–470.Google Scholar
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172.Google Scholar
Mineka, S., Davidson, M., Cook, M., & Weir, R. (1984). Observational conditioning of snake fears in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 355–372.Google Scholar
Moore, P. S., Whaley, S. E., & Sigman, M. (2004). Interactions between mothers and children: Impacts of maternal and child anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 471–476.Google Scholar
Muris, P., van Zwol, L., Huijding, J., & Mayer, B. (2010). Mom told me scary things about this animal: Parents installing fear beliefs in their children via the verbal information pathway. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 341–346.Google Scholar
Murray, L., Cooper, P. J., Creswell, C., Schofield, E., & Sack, C. (2007). The effects of maternal social phobia on mother–infant interactions and infant social responsiveness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 45–52.Google Scholar
Murray, L., Creswell, C., & Cooper, P. J. (2009). The development of anxiety disorders in childhood: An integrative review. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1413–1423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, L., DeRosnay, M., Pearson, J., Bergeron, C., Schofield, L., Royal-Lawson, M., et al. (2008). Intergenerational transmission of maternal social anxiety: The role of the social referencing process. Child Development, 79, 1049–1064.Google Scholar
Murray, L., Lau, P. Y., Arteche, A., Creswell, C., Russ, S., Zoppa, L. D., et al. (2012). Parenting by anxious mothers: Effects of disorder subtype, context and child characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 188–196.Google Scholar
Murray, L., Marwick, H., & Arteche, A. (2010). Sadness in mothers' “baby-talk” predicts affective disorder in adolescent offspring. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 361–364.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, D. (2006). Child, parent, and parent–child emotion narratives: Implications for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 771–790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, D., Emde, R. N., & Warren, S. (1997). Children's narrative representations of mothers: Their development and associations with child and mother adaptation. Child Development, 68, 127–138.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2007). Emotion dialogues between mothers and children at 4.5 and 7.5 years: Relations with children's attachment at 1 year. Child Development, 78, 38–52.Google Scholar
Pass, L. S. (2010). The intergenerational transmission of social phobia: Children's representations of and adjustment to school. Doctoral dissertation, University of Reading.Google Scholar
Pass, L., Arteche, A., Cooper, P. J., Creswell, C., & Murray, L. (2012). Doll play narratives about starting school in children of socially anxious mothers, and their relation to subsequent child school-based anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1375–1384.Google Scholar
Peterson, C., & McCabe, A. (1992). Parental styles of narrative elicitation: Effect on children's narrative structure and content. First Language, 12, 299–321.Google Scholar
Peterson, C., Jesso, B., & McCabe, A. (1999). Encouraging narratives in preschoolers: An intervention study. Journal of Child Language, 26, 49–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36, 717–731.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1991). Neo-conditioning and the classical theory of fear acquisition. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 155–173.Google Scholar
Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2006). Family emotional climate, attachment security and young children's emotion knowledge in a high risk sample. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 89–104.Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M., & Spence, S. H. (2004). The etiology of social phobia: Empirical evidence and an initial model. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 737–767.Google Scholar
Reese, E., & Newcombe, R. (2007). Training mothers in elaborative reminiscing enhances children's autobiographical memory and narrative. Child Development, 78, 1153–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reese, E., Sparks, A., & Leyva, D. (2010). A review of parent interventions for preschool children's language and literacy. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 10, 97–117.Google Scholar
Remmerswaal, D., Muris, P., & Huijding, J. (2013). “Watch out for the Gerbils, my child!” The role of maternal information on children's fear in an experimental setting using real animals. Behavior Therapy, 44, 317–324.Google Scholar
Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., & Hastings, P. D. (2002). Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers' inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Development, 73, 483–495.Google Scholar
Rubin, K. H., Cheah, C. S., & Fox, N. (2001). Emotion regulation, parenting and display of social reticence in preschoolers. Early Education and Development, 12, 97–115.Google Scholar
Rubin, K. H., & Mills, R. S. (1988). The many faces of social isolation in childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 916–924.Google Scholar
Rudek, D. J., & Haden, C. A. (2005). Mothers' and preschoolers' mental state language during reminiscing over time. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 51, 523–549.Google Scholar
Ruffman, T., Slade, L., & Crowe, E. (2002). The relation between children's and mothers' mental state language and theory-of-mind understanding. Child Development, 73, 734–751.Google Scholar
Ruffman, T., Slade, L., Devitt, K., & Crowe, E. (2006). What mothers say and what they do: The relation between parenting, theory of mind, language and conflict/cooperation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 105–124.Google Scholar
Salmon, K., Dadds, M., Allen, J., & Hawes, D. (2009). Can emotional language skills be taught during parent training for conduct problem children? Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40, 485–498.Google Scholar
Saudino, K. J. (2005). Behavioral genetics and child temperament. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 214–223.Google Scholar
Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Pina, A. A. (2001). Test–retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 937–944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suveg, C., Sood, E., Barmish, A., Tiwari, S., Hudson, J., & Kendall, P. C. (2008). “I'd rather not talk about it”: Emotion parenting in families of children with an anxiety disorder. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 875–884.Google Scholar
Suveg, C., Zeman, H., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Cassano, M. (2005). Emotion socialization in families of children with an anxiety disorder. Journal Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 145–155.Google Scholar
Tronick, E., & Beeghly, M. (2011). Infants' meaning-making and the development of mental health problems. American Psychologist, 66, 107–119. Google Scholar
Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., & Wolff, P. L. (1996). Is behavioral inhibition related to the anxiety disorders? Clinical Psychology Review, 16, 157–172.Google Scholar
Warren, S. L., & Simmens, S. J. (2005). Predicting toddler anxiety/depressive symptoms: Effects of caregiver sensitivity on temperamentally vulnerable children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 40–55.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1990). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wood, J. J., McLeod, B. D., Sigman, M., Hwang, W. C., & Chu, B. C. (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 134–151.Google Scholar